#Biologists find an early sign of cancer Years before they show any other signs of disease pancreatic cancer patients have very high levels of certain amino acids in their bloodstream according to a new study from MIT Dana-Farber
Cancer Institute and the Broad Institute. This finding which suggests that muscle tissue is broken down in the disease s earliest stages could offer new insights into developing early diagnostics for pancreatic cancer which kills about 40000 Americans every year
and is caught usually not until it is too late to treat. The study which appears today in the journal Nature Medicine is based on an analysis of blood samples from 1500 people participating in long-term health studies.
The researchers compared samples from people who were diagnosed eventually with pancreatic cancer and samples from those who were not.
The findings were dramatic: People with a surge in amino acids known as branched chain amino acids were far more likely to be diagnosed with pancreatic cancer within one to 10 years.
Pancreatic cancer even at its very earliest stages causes breakdown of body protein and deregulated metabolism.
What that means for the tumor and what that means for the health of the patient those are long-term questions still to be answered says Matthew Vander Heiden an associate professor of biology a member of MIT s Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research
The paper s other senior author is Brian Wolpin an assistant professor of medical oncology at Dana-Farber.
Wolpin a clinical epidemiologist assembled the patient sample from several large public-health studies. All patients had drawn their blood
What we found was that this really interesting signature fell out as predicting pancreatic cancer diagnosis which was elevation in these three branched chain amino acids:
These are among the 20 amino acids the building blocks for proteins normally found in the human body.
We found that higher levels of branched chain amino acids were present in people who went on to develop pancreatic cancer compared to those who did not develop the disease Wolpin says.
These findings led us to hypothesize that the increase in branched chain amino acids is due to the presence of an early pancreatic tumor.
Using those mouse models we found that we could perfectly recapitulate these exact metabolic changes during the earliest stages of cancer Vander Heiden says.
This is a finding of fundamental importance in the biology of pancreatic cancer says David Tuveson a professor at the Cancer Center at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory who was involved not in the work.
It really opens a window of possibility for labs to try to determine the mechanism of this metabolic breakdown.
which has not been seen in other types of cancer occurs in the early stages of pancreatic cancer.
They suspect that pancreatic tumors may be trying to feed their own appetite for amino acids that they need to build cancerous cells.
The findings need to be validated with more data and it may be difficult to develop a reliable diagnostic based on this signature alone Vander Heiden says.
The findings may also allow scientists to pursue new treatments that would work by targeting tumor metabolism
and cutting off a tumor s nutrient supply Vander Heiden says. MIT s contribution to this research was funded by the Lustgarten Foundation the National institutes of health the Burroughs Wellcome Fund and the Damon Runyon Cancer Research Foundation n
#Underwater robot for port security Last week at the International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems MIT researchers unveiled an oval-shaped submersible robot a little smaller than a football with a flattened
panel on one side that it can slide along an underwater surface to perform ultrasound scans.
Because of its small size and unique propulsion mechanism which leaves no visible wake the robots could in theory be concealed in clumps of algae or other camouflage.
It s very expensive for port security to use traditional robots for every small boat coming into the port says Sampriti Bhattacharyya a graduate student in mechanical engineering who designed the robot together with her advisor Ford Professor of Engineering
Indeed Bhattacharyya built the main structural components of the robot using a 3-D printer in Asada s lab. Half of the robot the half with the flattened panel is waterproof and houses the electronics.
The other half is permeable and houses the propulsion system which consists of six pumps that expel water through rubber tubes.
Two of those tubes vent on the side of the robot opposite the flattened panel so they can keep it pressed against whatever surface the robot is inspecting.
It s very similar to fighter jets which are made unstable so that you can maneuver them easily she says.
In the robot s watertight chamber are its control circuitry its battery a communications antenna and an inertial measurement unit
which consists of three accelerometers and three gyroscopes that can gauge the robot s motion in any direction.
The control algorithm constantly adjusts the velocity of the water pumped through each of the six jets to keep the robot on course.
and stay in contact with it while traveling in a straight line so the prototype is equipped not yet with an ultrasound sensor.
The rechargeable lithium batteries used in the prototype Bhattacharyya says last about 40 minutes. Since the robot can travel between half a meter
Their next prototype Bhattacharyya says will feature wirelessly rechargeable batteries. And modifications to the propulsion system she says should increase the robot s operation time on a single charge to 100 minutes.
Ultrasound however works only when the emitter is in direct contact with the object to be scanned
but in ongoing work Bhattacharyya and Asada are exploring mechanical systems that would create hydrodynamic buffers of just the right depth to enable the robot to perform ultrasound scans without surface contact.
Nathan Betcher a special-tactics officer in the U s. Air force has followed Bhattacharyya and Asada s work closely.
if this type of technology could find use in domestic maritime operations ranging from the detection of smuggled nuclear biological
Each year these superbugs including drug-resistant forms of tuberculosis and staphylococcus infect more than 2 million people nationwide
MIT engineers have turned now a powerful new weapon on these superbugs. Using a gene-editing system that can disable any target gene they have shown that they can selectively kill bacteria carrying harmful genes that confer antibiotic resistance or cause disease.
Led by Timothy Lu an associate professor of biological engineering and electrical engineering and computer science the researchers described their findings in the Sept. 21 issue of Nature Biotechnology.
Last month Lu s lab reported a different approach to combating resistant bacteria by identifying combinations of genes that work together to make bacteria more susceptible to antibiotics.
Lu hopes that both technologies will lead to new drugs to help fight the growing crisis posed by drug-resistant bacteria.
This is a pretty crucial moment when there are fewer and fewer new antibiotics available but more and more antibiotic resistance evolving he says.
We ve been interested in finding new ways to combat antibiotic resistance and these papers offer two different strategies for doing that.
Cutting out resistancemost antibiotics work by interfering with crucial functions such as cell division or protein synthesis. However some bacteria including the formidable MRSA (methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus)
In the new Nature Biotechnology study graduate students Robert Citorik and Mark Mimee worked with Lu to target specific genes that allow bacteria to survive antibiotic treatment.
The CRISPR genome-editing system presented the perfect strategy to go after those genes. CRISPR originally discovered by biologists studying the bacterial immune system involves a set of proteins that bacteria use to defend themselves against bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria.
One of these proteins a DNA-cutting enzyme called Cas9 binds to short RNA guide strands that target specific sequences telling Cas9 where to make its cuts.
Lu and colleagues decided to turn bacteria s own weapons against them. They designed their RNA guide strands to target genes for antibiotic resistance including the enzyme NDM-1
The genes encoding NDM-1 and other antibiotic resistance factors are carried usually on plasmids circular strands of DNA separate from the bacterial genome making it easier for them to spread through populations.
They also successfully targeted another antibiotic resistance gene encoding SHV-18 a mutation in the bacterial chromosome providing resistance to quinolone antibiotics and a virulence factor in enterohemorrhagic E coli.
To get the CRISPR components into bacteria the researchers created two delivery vehicles engineered bacteria that carry CRISPR genes on plasmids
and they envision that eventually the technology could be adapted to deliver the CRISPR components to treat infections or remove other unwanted bacteria in human patients.
This work represents a very interesting genetic method for killing antibiotic-resistant bacteria in a directed fashion
which in principle could help to combat the spread of antibiotic resistance fueled by excessive broad-spectrum treatment says Ahmad Khalil an assistant professor of biomedical engineering at Boston University who was not part of the research team.
and his graduate student Allen Cheng created a library of 34000 pairs of bacterial genes. All of these genes code for transcription factors which are proteins that control the expression of other genes.
but it doesn t necessarily tell you why they work well Lu says. This is a high-throughput technology for uncovering genetic combinations that look really interesting
We re excited about the application of Combigem to probe complex multifactorial phenotypes such as stem cell differentiation cancer biology
Dava Newman a professor of aeronautics and astronautics and engineering systems at MIT and her colleagues have engineered active compression garments that incorporate small springlike coils that contract in response to heat.
The coils are made from a shape-memory alloy (SMA) a type of material that remembers an engineered shape
At a certain trigger temperature the coils contract to their remembered form such as a fully coiled spring tightening the cuff in the process.
With conventional spacesuits you re essentially in a balloon of gas that s providing you with the necessary one-third of an atmosphere of pressure to keep you alive in the vacuum of space says Newman who has worked for the past decade to design a formfitting flexible spacesuit of the future.
and Newman along with graduate student Edward Obropta detail the design in the journal IEEE/ASME: Transactions on Mechatronics.
While skintight spacesuits have been proposed in the past there s been one persistent design hurdle: how to squeeze in and out of a pressurized suit that s engineered to be extremely tight.
That s where shape-memory alloys may provide a solution. Such materials only contract when heated and can easily be stretched back to a looser shape when cool.
To find an active material that would be most suitable for use in space Holschuh considered 14 types of shape-changing materials ranging from dielectric elastomers to shape-memory polymers before settling on nickel-titanium shape
-memory alloys. When trained as tightly packed small-diameter springs this material contracts when heated to produce a significant amount of force given its slight mass ideal for use in a lightweight compression garment.
The material is produced commonly in reels of very thin straight fiber. To transform the fiber into coils Holschuh borrowed a technique from another MIT group that previously used coiled nickel-titanium to engineer a heat-activated robotic worm.
Shape-memory alloys like nickel-titanium can essentially be trained to return to an original shape in response to a certain temperature.
To train the material Holschuh first wound raw SMA fiber into extremely tight millimeter-diameter coils then heated the coils to 450 degrees Celsius to set them into an original or trained shape.
At room temperature the coils may be stretched or bent much like a paper clip. However at a certain trigger temperature (in this case as low as 60 C) the fiber will begin to spring back to its trained tightly coiled state.
The researchers rigged an array of coils to an elastic cuff attaching each coil to a small thread linked to the cuff.
and require heavy battery packs a design that would significantly impede mobility and is given likely infeasible the limited power resources available to astronauts in space.
and active materials may be used for other purposes such as in athletic wear or military uniforms. You could use this as a tourniquet system
if someone is bleeding out on the battlefield Holschuh says. If your suit happens to have sensors it could tourniquet you in the event of injury without you even having to think about it.
An integrated suit is exciting to think about to enhance human performance Newman adds. We re trying to keep our astronauts alive safe
and mobile but these designs are not just for use in space. This research was funded by NASA and the MIT Portugal Program m
creating a flexible material that can change its color or fluorescence and its texture at the same time, on demand, by remote control.
in a paper by a team led by Xuanhe Zhao, the Brit (1961) and Alex (1949) d'Arbeloff Career development Associate professor in Engineering Design,
and Duke university Professor of Chemistry Stephen Craig. Zhao, who joined the MIT faculty from Duke this month
and holds a joint appointment with the Department of Civil and Environmental engineering, says the new material is essentially a layer of electro-active elastomer that could be adapted quite easily to standard manufacturing processes
and uses readily available materials. This could make it a more economical dynamic camouflage material than others that are assembled from individually manufactured electronic modules.
Zhao says the same basic approach could eventually lead to production of large, flexible display screens and antifouling coatings for ships.
Learning from nature Cephalopods achieve their remarkable color changes using muscles that can alter the shapes of tiny pigment sacs within the skin for example
The new synthetic material is a form of elastomer, a flexible, stretchable polymer. t changes its fluorescence and texture together,
in response to a change in voltage applied to it essentially, changing at the flip of a switch, says Qiming Wang,
that applying voltage can dynamically change surface textures of elastomers, Zhao says. he texturing and deformation of the elastomer further activates special mechanically responsive molecules embedded in the elastomer,
which causes it to fluoresce or change color in response to voltage changes, Craig adds. nce you release the voltage,
both the elastomer and the molecules return to their relaxed state like the cephalopod skin with muscles relaxed.
Multiple uses for quick changes While troops and vehicles often move from one environment to another,
they are limited presently to fixed camouflage patterns that might be effective in one environment but stick out like a sore thumb in another.
Using a system like this new elastomer, Zhao suggests, either on uniforms or on vehicles, could allow the camouflage patterns to constantly change in response to the surroundings. he U s. military spends millions developing different kinds of camouflage patterns,
but they are all static, Zhao says. odern warfare requires troops to deploy in many different environments during single missions.
This system could potentially allow dynamic camouflage in different environments. Another important potential application Zhao says,
is for an antifouling coating on the hulls of ships, where microbes and creatures such as barnacles can accumulate
bumpy texture, can quickly remove more than 90 percent of the biological fouling. Zhenan Bao, a professor of chemical engineering at Stanford university who was involved not in this research,
says this is nspiring workand a lever idea. She adds, think the significant part is to combine the ability of mechanochemical response with electrical addressing
Now MIT researchers have developed an algorithm for bounding that they ve successfully implemented in a robotic cheetah a sleek four-legged assemblage of gears batteries
and electric motors that weighs about as much as its feline counterpart. The team recently took the robot for a test run on MIT s Killian Court where it bounded across the grass at a steady clip.
The key to the bounding algorithm is in programming each of the robot s legs to exert a certain amount of force in the split second during
Sangbae Kim an associate professor of mechanical engineering at MIT hypothesizes that this force-control approach to robotic running is similar in principle to the way world-class sprinters race.
Kim says what makes the robot so dynamic is designed a custom high-torque-density electric motor designed by Jeffrey Lang the Vitesse Professor of Electrical engineering at MIT.
These motors are controlled by amplifiers designed by David Otten a principal research engineer in MIT s Research Laboratory of Electronics.
The combination of such special electric motors and custom-designed bio-inspired legs allow force control on the ground without relying on delicate force sensors on the feet.#
and graduate student Meng Yee Chuah will present details of the bounding algorithm this month at the IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems in Chicago.
and learn how it works. Video: Melanie Gonick/MIT Toward the ultimate gaitthe act of running can be parsed into a number of biomechanically distinct gaits from trotting
The percentage of time a leg spends on the ground rather than in the air is referred to in biomechanics as a duty cycle;
Kim and his colleagues developed an algorithm that determines the amount of force a leg should exert in the short period of each cycle that it spends on the ground.
#In experiments the team ran the robot at progressively smaller duty cycles finding that following the algorithm s force prescriptions the robot was able to run at higher speeds without falling.
Kim says the team s algorithm enables precise control over the forces a robot can exert while running.
This work was supported by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency g
#Making drones more customizable A first-ever standard perating systemfor drones, developed by a startup with MIT roots, could soon help manufacturers easily design
and customize unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVS) for multiple applications. Today, hundreds of companies worldwide are making drones for infrastructure inspection, crop-and livestock-monitoring,
and search-and-rescue missions, among other things. But these are built for a single mission,
Now Airware, founded by MIT alumnus Jonathan Downey 6, has developed a platform hardware, software, and cloud services that lets manufacturers pick
and choose various components and application-specific software to add to commercial drones for multiple purposes.
The key component is the startup Linux-based autopilot device, a small red box that is installed into all of a client drones. his is responsible for flying the vehicle in a safe, reliable manner,
and acts as hub for the components, so it can collect all that data and display that info to a user, says Downey, Airware CEO,
who researched and built drones throughout his time at MIT. To customize the drones customers use software to select third-party drone vehicles and components such as sensors, cameras, actuators,
and communication devices configure settings, and apply their configuration to a fleet. Other software helps them plan
and monitor missions in real time (and make midflight adjustments), and collects and displays data. Airware then pushes all data to the cloud,
where it aggregated and analyzed, and available to designated users. If a company decides to use a surveillance drone for crop management, for instance,
it can easily add software that stitches together different images to determine which areas of a field are overwatered
or underwatered. hey don have to know the flight algorithms, or underlying hardware, they just need to connect their software or piece of hardware to the platform,
Downey says. he entire industry can leverage that. Clients have trialed Airware platform over the past year including researchers at MIT,
who are demonstrating delivery of vaccines in Africa. Delta Drone in France is using the platform for open-air mining operations,
search-and-rescue missions, and agricultural applications. Another UAV maker, Cyber Technology in Australia, is using the platform for drones responding to car crashes and other disasters,
and inspecting offshore oilrigs. Now, with its most recent $25 million funding round Airware plans to launch the platform for general adoption later this year,
viewing companies that monitor crops and infrastructure with drones that require specific cameras and sensors as potential early customers.
A company from scratch Airware roots date to 2005, when Downey, who studied electrical engineering and computer science, organized an MIT student team including Airware chief technology officer, Buddy Michini 7, SM 9,
Phd 3 to build drones for an intercollegiate competition. At the time, drones were used primarily for military surveillance,
powered by a lack boxthat could essentially fly the drones and control the camera. There were also a handful of open-source projects made by hobbyists that let people modify drones
but the code was tweaked unreliable when. f you wanted to do anything novel, your hands were tied,
Downey says. The group decision: build a drone from scratch. But their advisor, Jonathan How, a professor of aeronautics and astronautics who directs of the Aerospace Controls Laboratory,
told them that required too much time, and would cost them the competition. e said, oue right,
but wee MIT students, and we feel better getting last place and learning a lot doing it than winning the competition by repackaging a black-box solution,?
Downey says. Sure enough, the team earned second-to-last place. ut we learned that black-box solution didn work
if youe trying to address new applications, and the open-source wasn reliable even though you could change the software,
Downey says. A five-year stretch at Boeing as an engineer for the U s. military A160 Hummingbird UAV and as a commercial pilot put Downey in contact with drone manufacturers, who,
he found, were still using black boxes or open-source designs. hey were basically facing the same challenges we faced as undergrads at MIT,
Downey says. Thus Airware was born in 2010 first run only by Downey, then with Michini and a team of Boeing engineers to make a military-grade lack boxsystem,
but whose capabilities could be tweaked and extended. Early prototypes were trialed by How group at MIT,
before Airware entered two California incubators, Lemnos Labs and Y-Combinator, in 2013. Since then, theye raised $40 million from investors and expanded their team from five to more than 50 employees. he last 18 months has been a rapid rise,
Downey says. Not much of the early MIT drone designs made it into the final Airware platform. ut building that early drone at MIT
and having the idea to leverage an enterprise-grade platform that you can extend the capabilities of,
very directly became what Airware is today, Downey says. he DOS for dronestoday, Downey says,
the development of a standard operating system for drones is analogous to Intel processors and Microsoft DOS paving the way for personal computers in the 1980s.
Before those components became available, hobbyists built computers using software that didn work with different computers.
At the same time, powerful mainframes were only available to a select few and still suffered software-incompatibility issues.
Then came Intel processors and DOS. Suddenly engineers could build computers around the standard processor and create software on the operating system,
without needing to know details of the underlying hardware. ee doing the same thing for the drone space,
Downey says. here are 600 companies building differing versions of drone hardware. We think they need the Intel processor of the drones,
if you will, and that operating system-level software component, too like the DOS for drones.
The benefits are far-reaching, Downey says: rone companies, for instance, want to build drones and tailor them for different applications without having to build everything from scratch,
he says. But companies developing cameras, sensors, and communication links for drones also stand to benefit,
he adds, as their components will need only to be compatible with a single platform. Additionally, it could help the Federal aviation administration (FAA) better assess the reliability of drones;
Congress recently tasked the agency with compiling UAV rules and regulations by 2015. This could also help promote commercial drone use in the United states,
which lags behind other countries around the world, primarily in Europe, Downey says. ather than see a world where there 500 drones flying overhead,
and every drone has different software and electronics, it good for the FAA if all of them had reliable and common hardware and software,
he says. e think it valuable for everybody. n
#Manual control When you imagine the future of gesture-control interfaces, you might think of the popular science-fiction films inority Report (2002) or ron Man (2008).
In those films, the protagonists use their hands or wireless gloves to seamlessly scroll through and manipulate visual data on a wall-sized, panoramic screen.
Wee not quite there yet. But the brain behind those Hollywood interfaces, MIT alumnus John Underkoffler 8, SM 1, Phd 9 who served as scientific advisor for both films has been bringing a more practical version of that technology to conference rooms
of Fortune 500 and other companies for the past year. Underkoffler company, Oblong Industries, has developed a platform called g-speak, based on MIT research,
and a collaborative-conferencing system called Mezzanine that allows multiple users to simultaneously share and control digital content across multiple screens,
from any device, using gesture control. Overall, the major benefit in such a system lies in boosting productivity during meetings,
says Underkoffler, Oblong CEO. This is especially true for clients who tend to pool resources into brainstorming and
whose meeting rooms may remain open all day, every day. f you can make those meetings synthetically productive not just times for people to check in, produce status reports,
or check email surreptitiously under the table that can be electrifying force for the enterprise,
he says. Mezzanine surrounds a conference room with multiple screens, as well as the rainsof the system (a small server) that controls and syncs everything.
Several Wii-like wands with six degrees of freedom, allow users to manipulate content such as text, photos, videos, maps, charts, spreadsheets,
and PDFS depending on certain gestures they make with the wand. That system is built on g-speak,
a type of operating system or a so-called patial operating environmentused by developers to create their own programs that run like Mezzanine.
-speak programs run in a distributed way across multiple machines and allow concurrent interactions for multiple people,
Underkoffler says. his shift in thinking as if from single sequential notes to chords and harmonies is powerful."
"Oblong clients include Boeing, Saudi Aramco, SAP, General electric, and IBM, as well as government agencies and academic institutions, such as Harvard university Graduate school of Design.
Architects and real estate firms are also using the system for structural designing. Putting pixels in the room G-speak has its roots in a 1999 MIT Media Lab project co-invented by Underkoffler in Professor Hiroshi Ishii Tangible Media Group called uminous Room,
which enabled all surfaces to hold data that could be manipulated with gestures. t literally put pixels in the room with you,
Underkoffler says. The group designed light bulbs called/0 Bulbs, that not only projected information, but also collected the information from a surface it projected onto.
That meant the team could make any projected surface a veritable computer screen, and the data could interact with,
and be controlled by, physical objects. They also assigned pixels three-dimensional coordinates. Imagine, for example, if you sat down in a chair at a table,
and tried to describe where the front, left corner of that table was located in physical space. ou say that corner is this far off the floor, this far to the right of my chair,
and this much in front of me, among other things, Underkoffler explains. e started doing that with pixels.
One application for urban planners involved placing small building models onto a 1/0 Bulb projected table,
nd the pixels surrounded the model, Underkoffler says. This provided three-dimensional spatial information, from which the program casted accurate, digital shadows from the models onto the table.
Changing the time on a digital clock changed the direction of the shadows. In another application, the researchers used a glass vase to manipulate digital text
and image boxes that were projected onto a whiteboard. The digital boxes were linked to the vase in a circle via digital prings.
When the vase moved, all the graphics followed. When the vase rotated, the graphics bunched together and elf-storedinto the vase;
when the vase rotated again, the graphics reappeared in their first form. These initial concepts using the whole room as a digital workplace became the foundation for g-speak. really wanted to get the ideas out into the world in a form that everyone could use,
Underkoffler says. enerally, that means commercial form, but the world of movies came calling first. he world largest focus groupunderkoffler was recruited as scientific advisor for Steven Spielberg inority Reportafter meeting the film crew,
who were searching for novel technology ideas at the Media Lab. Later, in 2003, Underkoffler reprised his behind-the-scenes gig for Ang Lee ulk,
and, in 2008, for Jon Favreau ron Man, which both depicted similar technologies. Seeing this technology on the big screen inspired Underkoffler to refine his MIT technology,
launch Oblong in 2006, and build early g-speak prototypes glove-based systems that eventually ended up with the company first customer, Boeing.
Having tens of millions of viewers seeing the technology on the big screen, however, offered a couple of surprising perks for Oblong,
which today is headquartered in Los angeles, with nine other offices and demo rooms in cities including Boston, New york,
and London. t might have been the world largest focus group, Underkoffler says. Those enthused by the technology,
for instance, started getting in touch with Underkoffler to see if the technology was real. Additionally, being part of a big-screen production helped Underkoffler
and Oblong better explain their own technology to clients, Underkoffler says. In such spectacular science-fiction films, technology competes for viewer attention and, yet,
it needs to be simplified so viewers can understand it clearly. hen you take technology from a lab like at MIT,
and you need to show it in a film, the process of refining and simplifying those ideas
so theye instantly legible on screen is really close to the refinement you need to undertake
if youe turning that lab work into a product, he says. t was enormously valuable to us to strip away everything in the system that wasn necessary
and leave a really compact core of user-interface ideas we have today. After years of writing custom projects for clients on g-speak,
Oblong turned the most-requested features of these jobs such as having cross-platform and multiple-user capabilities into Mezzanine. t was the first killer application we could write on top of g-speak,
he says. uilding a universal, shared-pixel workspace has enormous value no matter what your business is.
Today, Oblong is shooting for greater ubiquity of its technology. But how far away are we from a consumer model of Mezzanine?
It could take years, Underkoffler admits: ut we really hope to radically tilt the whole landscape of how we think about computers and user interface. n
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