#Greater rates of mitochondrial mutations discovered in children born to older mothers The discovery of a maternal age effect by a team of Penn State scientists that could be used to predict the accumulation of MITOCHONDRIAL DNA mutations in maternal egg cells
--and the transmission of these mutations to children--could provide valuable insights for genetic counseling. These mutations cause more than 200 diseases and contribute to others such as diabetes cancer Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease.
The study found greater rates of the MITOCHONDRIAL DNA variants in children born to older mothers as well as in the mothers themselves.
The research will be published in the early online edition of the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences on October 13 2014 Mitochondria are structures within cells that produce energy
Many mitochondrial diseases affect more than one system in the human body said Kateryna Makova professor of biology and one of the study's primary investigators.
They affect organs that require a lot of energy including the heart skeletal muscle and brain. They are devastating diseases
and there is no cure so our findings about their transmission are very important. The multidisciplinary research team set out to learn
whether maternal age is important in the accumulation of MITOCHONDRIAL DNA (mtdna) mutations both in the mother and in the child as a result of transmission.
Collaborating with Ian Paul a pediatrician at the Penn State Milton S. Hershey Medical center they took samples of blood and of cells inside the cheek from 39 healthy mother-child pairs.
Because mtdna is inherited only maternally paternal mtdna was not a factor in the study. Studying healthy individuals gave the researchers a baseline for future studies of disease-causing mutations.
Through DNA sequencing they found more mutations in blood and cheek cells in the older mothers in the study.
Maternal age of study participants ranged from 25 to 59. This finding is not surprising Makova said
But finding greater rates of mutations in children born to the older mothers did come as a surprise.
The researchers believe a similar mutation process is occurring both in the cells of the mothers'bodies and in their germ lines.
The study led to another important discovery about egg-cell development. Although it was known that developing egg cells go through a bottleneck period that decreases the number of mtdna molecules scientists didn't know how small
This finding is especially important for mothers who have a mitochondrial disease. For many mitochondrial diseases 70 to 80 percent of molecules need to have the disease-causing variant for the disease to manifest itself.
But for others only 10 percent of the mtdna molecules with the variant are needed to cause disease.
If the bottleneck is very small as we've found in our study these percentages can change dramatically Makova said.
Knowing the size of the bottleneck allows us to predict within a range the percentage of disease-carrying molecules that will be passed on to the child.
Knowledge about both the maternal age effect and the bottleneck size is useful in family planning. We have some predictive power now
and can assist genetic counselors in advising couples about the chances of mitochondrial diseases being passed to the next generation Makova said.
Everyone is concerned about Down syndrome because that is a common genetic problem. We have added now another set of genetic disorders that also might be affected by the age of the mother.
It is good for couples to have this knowledge as they make family-planning decisions. Story Source:
understanding of diseases and possibly to new therapies according to UC San francisco scientists. The key to the advance is a new invention called the Suntag a series of molecular hooks for hanging multiple copies of biologically active molecules onto a single protein scaffold used to target genes or other molecules.
Compared to molecules assembled without these hooks those incorporating the Suntag can greatly amplify biological activity.
The Suntag was developed by researchers in the lab of Ron Vale Phd a professor of molecular and cellular pharmacology and a HHMI investigator at UCSF.
Vale received the Albert Lasker Basic Medical Research Award in 2012 for his discovery of molecular motors that ferry cargo around within cells.
The Vale team used the Suntag to greatly amplify the light-emitting signal from the green fluorescent protein commonly used by researchers to label molecules within cells.
Viewed through a microscope the signal that can be obtained with the Suntag is so strong it can be used to track a single molecule within the molecular motors that Vale studies.
In collaboration with Jonathan Weissman Phd professor of cellular and molecular pharmacology and a Howard hughes medical institute (HHMI) investigator at UCSF UCSF researchers also used the Suntag to supercharge a variation of a biochemical approach known as CRISPR.
CRISPR is a technique that emerged a few years ago as a way to edit DNA anywhere within the genome.
but especially for switching genes on the previously reported methods were inefficient according to Vale. It depends on the gene
but this new approach appears to amplify gene-switching by as much as 50-fold Vale said.
CRISPR with Suntag Already Is Shedding Light on Cancer and Normal Developmentcrispr--an acronym for clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats--is a natural system that bacteria use to defend themselves against viruses. The basis for CRISPR applications in the lab is a protein from this system called Cas9
The selected RNA serves as an adaptor that determines the target anywhere within the genome.
The Weissman team led experiments demonstrating that CRISPR molecules incorporating the Suntag can be used to precisely control gene expression of many genes within the genome.
CRISPR activation and interference can be used to understand how specific genes work in cancer regenerative medicine or neurodegenerative disease according to Weissman.
For instance these methods could be used to identify biochemical pathways that cancer cells may use to develop drug resistance
and the same approach could be used to eventually develop new stem cell strategies for generating tissue transplants he said.
RNA interference was identified more than a decade ago launching a new research field that has spawned a Nobel prize and new biotech firms.
CRISPR activation of genes can provide complementary biological insights. The adaptation of the Suntag for CRISPR activation makes it possible to systematically probe the biological roles of all genes within the genome in a single experiment.
The Weissman team used CRISPR activation to identify a number of tumor suppressor genes that inhibit the growth of cancer cells.
In future studies researchers will use CRISPR activation to reveal mechanisms by which cancer cells develop resistance to anticancer drugs--a process that typically involves gene activation n
#New cancer drug to begin trials in multiple myeloma patients Scientists at Imperial College London have developed a new cancer drug
In a paper published today in the journal Cancer cell the researchers report how the drug known as DTP3 kills myeloma cells in laboratory tests in human cells
and mice without causing any toxic side effects which is the main problem with most other cancer drugs.
The new drug works by stopping a key process that allows cancer cells to multiply. The team have been awarded Biomedical Catalyst funding from the Medical Research Council (MRC) to take the drug into a clinical trial in multiple myeloma patients scheduled to begin in late 2015.
Multiple myeloma is an incurable cancer of the bone marrow which accounts for nearly two per cent of all cancer deaths.
Professor Guido Franzoso from the Department of Medicine at Imperial College London who led the research said:
Lab studies suggest that DTP3 could have therapeutic benefit for patients with multiple myeloma and potentially several other types of cancer but we will need to confirm this in our clinical trials the first
of which will start next year. The new drug was developed by studying the mechanisms that enable cancer cells to outlive their normal lifespan
and carry on multiplying. In the 1990s a protein called nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kb) which plays an important role in inflammation
and the immune and stress response systems was discovered to be overactive in many types of cancer and responsible for switching off the normal cellular mechanisms that naturally lead to cell death.
This enables the cancer cells to survive. The pharmaceutical industry and scientists around the world have invested heavily in research into NF-kb inhibitors
but such compounds have not been developed successfully as therapies because they also block the many important processes controlled by NF-kb in healthy cells causing serious toxic side effects.
The Imperial researchers took a different approach looking for target genes downstream of NF-kb that might be responsible for its role in cancer specifically.
By studying cells from multiple myeloma patients they identified a protein complex named GADD45ß/MKK7 that appeared to play a critical role in allowing the cancer cells to survive.
but appears to have no toxicity to normal cells at the doses that eradicate the tumours in mice.
-B pathway with our DTP3 peptide therapeutic selectively kills myeloma cells could offer a completely new approach to treating patients with certain cancers such as multiple myeloma Professor Franzoso said.
A spinout company Kesios Therapeutics was formed to commercialise DTP3 and other drug candidates based on Professor Franzoso's research with support from Imperial Innovations a technology commercialisation company focused on developing the most promising UK academic research.
The significant progress made by Professor Franzoso in multiple myeloma is one of the many cancers we believe his signal transduction research could be applied to.
To help develop this ground-breaking research further Imperial Innovations created the spin out Kesios Therapeutics explained Dayle Hogg from the Healthcare Ventures team at Imperial Innovations i
#Research findings could pave way for a fructose tolerance test Increased consumption of table sugar
and high-fructose corn syrup has been linked to rising rates of obesity and type 2 diabetes in the United states and throughout the world.
Both sweeteners are commonly found in processed foods and sugar-sweetened beverages and both are made up of nearly equal amounts of two basic sugars glucose and fructose.
and has become the diagnostic cornerstone for modern diabetes care. Furthermore the hormone insulin can also be measured easily to assess the acute metabolic effects of glucose ingestion
and evaluate a person's risk for developing diabetes and cardiovascular disease. But determining the body's metabolic response to fructose has been much more difficult
A new study led by investigators at Beth Israel Deaconess Medical center (BIDMC) now finds that blood levels of the hormone Fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21) increases rapidly acutely and robustly after fructose ingestion.
Accumulating evidence suggests that the fructose component of sugar may have a particularly deleterious effect on health explains co-senior author Mark Herman MD of the Division of Endocrinology Diabetes
and Metabolism at BIDMC and Assistant professor of Medicine at Harvard Medical school (HMS). If you feed animals
and develop fatty liver disease and abnormal blood lipid levels. All of these increase the risk of developing diabetes and cardiovascular disease.
Fructose is a pervasive presence throughout our foods: high fructose corn syrup for example can be found in everything from processed cookies and sweets to seemingly healthy foods such as yogurt.
and measured adds co-senior author Eleftheria Maratos-Flier MD HMS Professor of Medicine in the Division of Endocrinology Diabetes and Metabolism at BIDMC.
and animals FGF21 levels are elevated in association with obesity insulin resistance and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease.
Herman's work meanwhile had focused on a cellular factor Carbohydrate Responsive-Element Binding Protein (Chrebp)
and responds by activating cellular gene expression programs. Observations that fructose potently activates Chrebp in rodent livers
To test this hypothesis the researchers led by first author Jody Dushay MD HMS Instructor in Medicine recruited 10 lean healthy study subjects.
Furthermore she adds the findings demonstrated that the FGF21 response was exaggerated in subjects with metabolic disease suggesting that either some aspect of fructose metabolism changes during the development of metabolic syndrome
and those with an exaggerated FGF21 response to fructose are predisposed to developing disease. For the first time this provides an avenue for labs everywhere to easily study fructose metabolism in people adds Herman.
and treat cardiometabolic disease e
#First observation of atomic diffusion inside bulk material Researchers at the Department of energy's Oak ridge National Laboratory have obtained the first direct observations of atomic diffusion inside a bulk material.
This is the first time that anyone has imaged directly single dopant atoms moving around inside a material said Rohan Mishra of Vanderbilt University who is also a visiting scientist in ORNL's Materials science and Technology Division.
Semiconductors which form the basis of modern electronics are doped by adding a small number of impure atoms to tune their properties for specific applications.
Theory-based calculations for dopant motion in aluminum nitride predicted faster diffusion for cerium atoms than for manganese atoms.
In the study the researchers used a scanning transmission electron microscope to observe the diffusion processes of cerium and manganese dopant atoms.
The team's work could be applied directly in basic material design and technologies such as energy saving LED LIGHTS where dopants can affect color
and atom movement can determine the failure modes. Diffusion governs how dopants get inside a material
The study was funded by the DOE Office of Science the Australian Research Council Vanderbilt University and the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science Postdoctoral Fellowship for research abroad.
The project's authors include Ryo Ishikawa of Oak ridge National Laboratory and the University of Tokyo;
Scott Findlay of Monash University; Takashi Taniguchi of the National Institute for Materials science; Sokrates Pantelides of Oak ridge National Laboratory and Vanderbilt University;
and Stephen Pennycook of the University of Tennessee. Story Source: The above story is provided based on materials by Oak ridge National Laboratory y
#Versatile antibiotic found with self-immunity gene on plasmid in staph strain A robust broad spectrum antibiotic
and a gene that confers immunity to that antibiotic are both found in the bacterium Staphylococcus epidermidis Strain 115.
The antibiotic a member of the thiopeptide family of antibiotics is not in widespread use partly due to its complex structure
but the investigators from Brigham Young University Provo Utah now report that the mechanism of synthesis is surprisingly simple.
We hope to come up with innovative processes for large-scale production and derivitization so that new and possibly more potent versions of the antibiotic can become available says co-corresponding author Joel S. Griffitts.
Strain 115 was discovered originally on turkeys that appeared to have enhanced immunity to bacterial infections. The motivation behind our current work was a desire to understand the connection between Strain 115
and immunity to disease-causing bacteria says Griffitts. It quickly became clear to the investigators that Strain 115 could produce a potent antibiotic that targets a large number of medically relevant bacteria including those that cause staph infections strep throat and severe gastrointestinal diseases.
We wanted to know the identity of this antibiotic and the means by which Strain 115 protects itself from its own antibiotic's deadly effects says Griffitts.
We found that the genes for both antibiotic synthesis and self protection in Strain 115 are clustered conveniently on a compact DNA molecule a plasmid that replicates itself as a small circle within the cells of Strain 115 says Griffitts.
That version failed to produce both the antibiotic and the immunity to the antibiotic. The investigators then analyzed the mechanism of immunity.
Thiopeptide antibiotics kill cells by blocking a part of the ribosome Griffitts explains. Ribosomes common to all living organisms are the machines that read the genetic code producing proteins based on the instructions therein.
The plasmid which directs the production of the thiopeptide antibiotic also directs production of a spare part for the ribosome a replacement for the part that is blocked by the antibiotic
The investigation of Strain 115 began as an undergraduate project after the bacteria had sat in a laboratory freezer for decades says Griffitts.
It quickly grew into an effort involving two Ph d. microbiologists a talented graduate student and several analytical biochemists.
The above story is provided based on materials by American Society for Microbiology. Note: Materials may be edited for content and length.
#Disputed theory on Parkinsons origin strengthened Parkinson's disease is linked strongly to the degeneration of the brain's movement center.
In the last decade the question of where the disease begins has led researchers to a different part of the human anatomy.
In 2003 the German neuropathologist Heiko Braak presented a theory suggesting that the disease begins in the gut and spreads to the brain.
Researchers at Lund University in Sweden now present the first direct evidence that the disease can actually migrate from the gut to the brain.
The so-called Braak's hypothesis proposes that the disease process begins in the digestive tract and in the brain's center of smell.
and smell occur very early on in the disease. Researchers at Lund University have mapped previously the spread of Parkinson's in the brain.
The disease progression is believed to be driven by a misfolded protein that clumps together and infects neighboring cells.
Professor Jia-Yi Li's research team has now been able to track this process further from the gut to the brain in rat models.
The experiment shows how the toxic protein alpha-synuclein is transported from one cell to another before ultimately reaching the brain's movement center giving rise to the characteristic movement disorders in Parkinson's disease.
We have now been able to prove that the disease process actually can travel from the peripheral nervous system to the central nervous system in this case from the wall of the gut to the brain.
In the longer term this may give us new therapeutic targets to try to slow
or stop the disease at an earlier stage says Professor Jia-Yi Li research group leader for Neural Plasticity and Repair at Lund University.
The research team will now carry out further studies in which the mechanisms behind the transport of the harmful protein will be examined in detail.
in order to put a stop to the further spread of the disease. Story Source: The above story is provided based on materials by Lund University.
Note: Materials may be edited for content and length. Journal Reference e
#Magnetic superconductor: Strange bedfellows Chemists at Ludwig-Maximilias-Universitaet (LMU) in Munich have synthesized a ferromagnetic superconducting compound that is amenable to chemical modification opening the route to detailed studies of this rare combination of physical properties.
Superconductivity and ferromagnetism--the normal form of magnetism such as that found in the familiar horseshoe magnet--are like chalk and cheese:
They generally don't go together. Ferromagnets are magnetic because the parallel alignment of adjacent electron spins in the iron atoms generates a strong internal magnetic field.
Almost all known superconductors on the other hand form pairs of anti-aligned electrons and exclude magnetic field lines from their interiors.
But LMU chemists have discovered a new material in which these two properties can coexist: We have synthesized a new compound
which exhibits both characteristics at the same time: It is a ferromagnetic superconductor says Professor Dirk Johrendt of the Department of chemistry.
This is an important advance which opens up new research opportunities in the field he adds.
Ferromagnetic superconductors are not unknown but they are exceedingly rare and almost always exhibit both properties simultaneously only when they are cooled to temperatures close to absolute zero(-273°C). The layered material
which we have synthesized (Life) OH (Fese) has the great advantage that it works at higher temperatures
and superconductivity emerges. At somewhat lower temperatures the iron atoms in the (Life) OH layer become ferromagnetic
but superconductivity persists nevertheless. In cooperation with physicists from the Technical University in Dresden and the Paul Scherrer Institute in Villingen (Switzerland) the LMU researchers have demonstrated that the magnetic field generated by the (Life) OH layers penetrates into the interleaved superconducting layers--spontaneously and in the absence of externally applied fields.
This novel state of matter is referred to as a spontaneous vortex phase. The few substances which exhibit this effect cannot easily be modified chemically
Our new compound for the first time gives us the chance to explore the influence of chemical modification on the coexistence of superconductivity
#Bio-inspired nano-cocoons offer targeted drug delivery against cancer cells Biomedical engineering researchers have developed a drug delivery system consisting of nanoscale ocoonsmade of DNA that target cancer cells
The work was done by researchers at North carolina State university and the University of North carolina at Chapel hill. his drug delivery system is based DNA
which means it is biocompatible and less toxic to patients than systems that use synthetic materialssays Dr. Zhen Gu senior author of a paper on the work and an assistant professor in the joint biomedical engineering program at NC State and UNC
Chapel hill. his technique also specifically targets cancer cells can carry a large drug load and releases the drugs very quickly once inside the cancer cellgu says. n addition
because we used self-assembling DNA techniques it is relatively easy to manufacturesays Wujin Sun lead author of the paper
and a Ph d. student in Gu lab. Each nano-cocoon is made of a single strand of DNA that self-assembles into
what looks like a cocoon or ball of yarn that measures 150 nanometers across. The core of the nano-cocoon contains the anticancer drug doxorubicin (DOX) and a protein called DNASE.
The DNASE an enzyme that would normally cut up the DNA cocoon is coated in a thin polymer that traps the DNASE like a sword in a sheath.
The surface of the nano-cocoon is studded with folic acid ligands. When the nano-cocoon encounters a cancer cell the ligands bind the nano-cocoon to receptors on the surface of the cell causing the cell to suck in the nano-cocoon.
Once inside the cancer cell the cell acidic environment destroys the polymer sheath containing the DNASE.
Freed from its sheath the DNASE rapidly slices through the DNA cocoon spilling DOX into the cancer cell
and killing it. ee preparing to launch preclinical testing nowgu says. ee very excited about this system
and think it holds promise for delivering a variety of drugs targeting cancer and other diseases. he paper ocoon-Like Self-Degradable DNA-Nanoclew for Anticancer Drug Deliverywas published online Oct 13 in the Journal
Co-authors include Yue Lu a Ph d. student in Gu lab; Margaret Reiff an undergraduate student in the joint biomedical engineering department;
Tianyue Jiang a Ph d. student in the joint biomedical engineering department and at the China Pharmaceutical University;
and Dr. Ran Mo a former postdoctoral researcher in the joint biomedical engineering department now at the China Pharmaceutical University.
This research was supported by the North carolina Translational and Clinical Sciences Institute under grant number 1ul1tr001111 and with funding from NC State and UNC Chapel hill.
Story Source: The above story is provided based on materials by North carolina State university. Note: Materials may be edited for content and length
#Body position in breast cancer radiation treatment matters, experts say A new treatment board which allows patients to lie on their stomach in the prone position during radiation treatment is proving more effective for breast cancer patients
at The Ohio State university Comprehensive Cancer Center--Arthur G. James Cancer Hospital and Richard J. Solove Research Institute.
Dr. Julia White of Ohio State's Comprehensive Cancer Center--James Cancer Hospital and Solove Research Institute has helped develop a modified treatment board that allows patients to lie comfortably on their stomachs
while the breast tissue falls away from the chest wall allowing the radiation to target the cancer.
and create a more uniform shape that we can distribute the dose of radiation through evenly said White director of Breast Radiation Oncology at the Stefanie Spielman Comprehensive Breast Center.
These modifications ease concerns of patients like Kim Doran of New Albany OH who have a family history of heart disease.
Both my parents passed away from heart attacks. So having that history of heart disease my main concern was the radiation affecting my heart said Doran It made
me feel a hundred percent better to know that that's the procedure I needed to have.
The above story is provided based on materials by Ohio State university Wexner Medical center. Note: Materials may be edited for content and length h
#Smart lithium-ion battery warns of fire hazard Stanford university scientists have developed a smart lithium-ion battery that gives ample warning before it overheats
The new technology is designed for conventional lithium-ion batteries now used in billions of cellphones laptops and other electronic devices as well as a growing number of cars and airplanes.
and property said Yi Cui an associate professor of materials science and engineering at Stanford. The system can detect problems that occur during the normal operation of a battery
but it does not apply to batteries damaged in a collision or other accident. Cui and his colleagues describe the new technology in a study published in the Oct 13 issue of the journal Nature Communications.
Lowering the oddsa series of well-publicized incidents in recent years has raised concern over the safety of lithium-ion batteries.
In 2013 the Boeing aircraft company temporarily grounded its new 787 Dreamliner fleet after battery packs in two airplanes caught fire.
The cause of the fires has yet to be determined. In 2006 the Sony Corporation recalled millions of lithium-ion batteries after reports of more than a dozen consumer-laptop fires.
The company said that during the manufacturing process tiny metal impurities had gotten inside the batteries causing them to short-circuit.
The likelihood of a bad thing like that happening is maybe one in a million Cui said.
That's still a big problem considering that hundreds of millions of computers and cellphones are sold each year.
We want to lower the odds of a battery fire to one in a billion or even to zero.
A typical lithium-ion battery consists of two tightly packed electrodes--a carbon anode and a lithium metal-oxide cathode--with an ultrathin polymer separator in between.
The separator keeps the electrodes apart. If it's damaged the battery could short-circuit and ignite the flammable electrolyte solution that shuttles lithium ions back and forth.
The separator is made of the same material used in plastic bottles said graduate student Denys Zhuo co-lead author of the study.
It's porous so that lithium ions can flow between the electrodes as the battery charges and discharges.
Manufacturing defects such as particles of metal and dust can pierce the separator and trigger shorting as Sony discovered in 2006.
Shorting can also occur if the battery is charged too fast or when the temperature is too low--a phenomenon known as overcharge.
Overcharging causes lithium ions to get stuck on the anode and pile up forming chains of lithium metal called dendrites Cui explained.
The dendrites can penetrate the porous separator and eventually make contact with the cathode causing the battery to short.
Smart separatorin the last couple of years we've been thinking about building a smart separator that can detect shorting before the dendrites reach the cathode said Cui a member of the photon science faculty at the SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory
at Stanford. To address the problem Cui and his colleagues applied a nanolayer of copper onto one side of a polymer separator creating a novel third electrode halfway between the anode and the cathode.
The copper layer acts like a sensor that allows you to measure the voltage difference between the anode
and the separator Zhuo said. When the dendrites grow long enough to reach the copper coating the voltage drops to zero.
That lets you know that the dendrites have grown halfway across the battery. It's a warning that the battery should be removed before the dendrites reach the cathode and cause a short circuit.
The build up of dendrites is most likely to occur during charging not during the discharge phase
when the battery is being used. You might get a message on your phone telling you that the voltage has dropped to zero so the battery needs to be replaced Zhuo said.
That would give you plenty of lead-time. But when you see smoke or a fire you have to shut down immediately.
You might not have time to escape. If you wanted to error on the side of being safer you could put the copper layer closer to the anode.
That would let you know even sooner when a battery is likely to fail. Locating defectsin addition to observing a drop in voltage co-lead author Hui Wu was able to pinpoint where the dendrites had punctured the copper conductor simply by measuring the electrical resistance between the separator and the cathode.
He confirmed the location of the tiny puncture holes by actually watching the dendrites grow under a microscope.
The copper coating on the polymer separator is only 50 nanometers thick about 500 times thinner than the separator itself said Wu a postdoctoral fellow in the Cui group.
The coated separator is quite flexible and porous like a conventional polymer separator so it has negligible effect on the flow of lithium ions between the cathode and the anode.
Adding this thin conducting layer doesn't change the battery's performance but it can make a huge difference as far as safety.
Most lithium-ion batteries are used in small electronic devices. But as the electric vehicle market expands
and we start to replace onboard electronics on airplanes this will become a much larger problem Zhuo said.
The bigger the battery pack the more important this becomes Cui added. Some electric cars today are equipped with thousands of lithium-ion battery cells.
If one battery explodes the whole pack can potentially explode. The early-warning technology can also be used in zinc aluminum and other metal batteries.
It will work in any battery that would require you to detect a short before it explodes Cui said.
Video: http://youtu. be/2vsqny0zyjystory Source: The above story is provided based on materials by Stanford university. Note:
Materials may be edited for content and length. Journal Reference e
Overtext Web Module V3.0 Alpha
Copyright Semantic-Knowledge, 1994-2011