The project investigated the educational potential of two ubiquitous mobile devices: Palm smart phones and ipod digital audio players (mp3 players.
An action learning framework for professional development was designed and implemented with a group of teachers from a Faculty of education.
Each teacher or team created pedagogies to implement appropriate use of a mobile device in different subject areas in higher education.
mobile learning, mobile technologies, mobile learning, authentic learning, design-based research, higher education Introduction Personal mobile devices such as ipods and mobile phones are now ubiquitous amongst student
Even if a teacher is a competent and avid user of personal mobile devices, he or she may feel ill-prepared to use them with students in pedagogically innovative and appropriate ways.
but few universities currently provide PD on personal mobile devices, generally preferring to focus on more mainstream educational technologies such as computers, learning management systems software packages and audiovisual tools.
It is only at a surface level that widespread teacher PD appears to provide a solution.
if the professional development of teachers focuses principally upon instruction on the utility of mobile devices
While there are many exemplars of prosaic uses of mobile devices for communication, few examples currently exist of how they might be used as cognitive tools (Jonassen & Reeves,
Chesterman, nd, issues related to educational media explored through videos, documentaries, animations of educational concepts and news bulletins with mobile phones;(
Similarly, in terms of student use of mobile technologies, the focus of the debate has been upon the problematic use of mobile phones in schools (e g.,
, Campbell, 2005) and the social and cultural shift in communication dynamics through the use of mobile devices (e g.,
Aims and scope of the project The project investigated the educational potential of mobile devices, specifically,‘smartphones'(combined mobile phones and PDAS) and ipods, in tertiary education.
mobile phones, PDAS and mp3 players. However, at the time, more and more mobile phones were incorporating PDAS into their functionality so it was decided to use a hybrid of these two.
Specifically, the project aimed to: 1. Investigate the potential uses or‘affordances'of the smartphone and ipod 2. Engage teachers from a Faculty of education using an action learning professional development framework to explore
and invent pedagogies appropriate to their students'use of a mobile device in completing a complex task within an authentic learning environment. 3. Implement the use of mobile technologies
and authentic tasks in learning activities over a period of 3-5 weeks in a range of different subject areas. 4. Describe,
and professional development activities through a dedicated website and a published handbook. 5. Implement the professional development activities for mobile learning across other faculties at the University of Wollongong
and disseminate in web-based template form to other universities across Australia and overseas. The following questions framed the research:
1. What are the technology affordances of smartphones and ipods for teaching and learning in higher education?
New Pedagogies project Funding was obtained from the Carrick Institute (now ALTC) to investigate new and innovative pedagogies related to the use of mobile phones (smartphones with PDA functions) and ipods.
the design of 12 pedagogies to be implemented with either the phone or the ipod in classes across a range of disciplines in a Faculty of education,
Norman, 1988) of mobile devices for teaching and learning in higher education. This phase was conducted over the first six months of the project.
and a prototype project website was created. The leadership team, together with professional development and IT experts, met fortnightly for planning and monitoring,
Phase 1 of the project also involved the purchase of class sets of mobile devices. Palm Treo 680 smartphones and Apple 30g ipods were purchased by the University from Teaching and Learning funds, for use in the professional development workshops and implementations with students in classes.
Other necessary peripherals were purchased also such as memory cards protective cases, microphones, additional head phones and card readers.
All participants in the project were issued with both an ipod and Proceedings ascilite Melbourne 2008:
Full paper: Herrington 422 Table 1: Summary of project processes and outcomes m-learning affordances What are the technology affordances of smartphones,
and mp3 players in higher education? m-learning professional development What are appropriate strategies for the PD of higher ed teachers in the pedagogical use of m-learning devices?
June 07) Semester 3 july Dec 07) Semester 4 jan June 08) Sem 3, 4 & beyond (July 07 on) Smart phones mp3 (ipods) Investigation
Science education Physical education Visual Arts education Maths education IT in education Multimedia education Web-based learning Literacy education Reflective practice Adult education Final
project conference to present findings and discuss model and principles Finalisation of project website Publication of edited book Long-term evaluation Products from each phase Phase 1:
Workshop resource (processes and procedures for others to implement) Phase 3: 12 case descriptions and evaluations Website of exemplars and strategy descriptions Phase 4:
Final conference Edited book Project report Final public website Evaluation (Reeves & Hedberg, 2003) Review of literature and existing initiatives Formative evaluation of PD
workshops Formative evaluation of learning environments and project website Effectiveness evaluation of 12 learning environments Effectiveness evaluation of whole project Peer review of chapters by team
& reference group smartphone for use prior to the commencement of the implementations with classes,
These catalogues are available on the project website. At the end of Phase 1, the project structures had been put into place (i e.,
, project management, team meetings, project website), a literature review had been conducted, and the educational affordances of the devices had been investigated and reported.
Each teacher used one or more mobile devices in depth, to explore the full range of affordances,
At all times, teachers were aware of the requirement to create innovative uses of the devices as cognitive tools rather than for simple recording of data, one way transmission of information (such as podcasting of lectures),
or communication from one site to another. When teachers had designed their learning tasks, they were able to trial their ideas in the PD group during this phase,
teachers used data collection methods such as focus group interviews, observations, video recordings, individual interviews, journals, weekly logs, reflective essays, student blogs
supports and assessment items) and uploaded descriptions of pedagogies to the project website. Proceedings ascilite Melbourne 2008:
and the project website. A final 2-day conference was held after all cases had been implemented and evaluated at the end of the second year of the project.
The project website also includes succinct case study descriptions and exemplars of the pedagogies developed for the m-learning devices.
and modelling of the implementation and pedagogy of mobile devices, using a theoretical foundation of authentic learning, rather than a transmissive, technology-driven perspective.
These guidelines will be published in the edited book, in conference papers and workshops, on the website and through other means such as listservs and electronic newsletters.
a project website, literature review created as an Endnote library with embedded papers, a searchable catalogue of educational affordances of the mobile devices,
the project manager also set in place processes such as sending updates for the website to reflect the progress of the project,
and maintain the mobile devices and to provide teacher/researchers with equitable access for their research,
The project website served as a focal point for the project activities, schedule and resources. In each phase, the substantive value of the website grew
both as an important communication device and as a repository for relevant resources, and products generated by the project.
Figure 1 shows the home page and the technology affordances page for the ipod on the project website.
Web pages from the project website Conclusion Although general guidelines on the use of technology have been delineated by MCEETYA (2005),
authentic pedagogies for mobile devices but also in the action learning approach adopted for the professional development of participants.
The proliferation of mobile devices has proceeded throughout society at such a rate that higher education can no longer avoid exploring the educational potential of these tools.
Campbell, Marilyn A. 2005) The impact of the mobile phone on young people's social life.
Education and Information technologies, 12 (2), 59-70. Herrington, A. 2008. Adult educators'authentic use of smartphones to create digital teaching resources.
In Hello! Where are you in the landscape of educational technology? Proceedings ascilite Melbourne 2008. http://www. ascilite. org. au/conferences/melbourne08/procs/herrington-a. pdf Herrington, A,
Supporting teachers'action learning within a web environment. In P. Kommers, & G. Richards (Eds.),
Mobile phones, Japanese youth, and the replacement of social contact. In R. Ling, & P. E. Pedersen (Eds.),
Computers as mindtools for schools. Merrill: NJ. Jonassen, D, . & Reeves, T. C. 1996). Learning with technology:
Using computers as cognitive tools. In D. Jonassen (Ed.),Handbook of research on educational communications and technology (pp. 693-719.
Mobile phones and the New zealand Youth. A report of results from the Internet Safety Group's survey of teenage mobile phone use.
Netsafe: Wellington, NZ. Norman, D. A. 1988. The psychology of everyday things. New york: Basic books. Oliver, R,
Handheld computers (PDAS) in schools. Coventry, UK: BECTA. Proceedings ascilite Melbourne 2008: Full paper: Herrington 427 Proctor, N,
Journal of Computing in Higher education, 16 (2), 97-116. Reimann, P, . & Goodyear, P. 2004).
Email: janh@uow. edu. au Please cite as: Herrington, J.,Mantei, J.,Herrington, A,.Olney I,
We found that the Authority actively monitors its exposure to risks related to technology approaching end-of-life.
despite the hardware being supported by the supplier on a'best endeavours'basis. 2 The legacy system is unable to comply with the latest NHS information standards for drugs and medicines.
such as the NHS reform and accuracy improvements required by the Department of health and therefore has formulated not yet a robust value for money case to either replace
cost, prioritisation and funding. 1 ttp://www. nhsbsa. nhsh. uk/Prescriptionservices/809. aspx 2 The Mcdonnell douglas hardware
and while the Authority has a strong preference for the electronic submission of prescriptions for reasons of accuracy and efficiency;
and there is a desire within the Authority to improve accuracy and reduce costs further across the service.
and we were told that a test will be arranged after the recent service provider data centre relocation. While the Authority took steps to ensure roll-back capability at each stage of the move
when integrating data and processing with modern systems. Despite this the government's stated preference is to extend the lives of such systems rather than face the risks and costs of replacing them.
In response, the government said it preferred to extend the life of legacy systems using software layers it called wrappers that would make legacy systems integrate more easily with newer systems. 3 The Cabinet Office
, available at http://www. cabinetoffice. gov. uk/sites/default/files/resources/uk-government-ict-strategy-2011 0. odt 5 House of commons Public Administration
and Pensions using the 26 year old Pension Strategy Computer system. The Value Added Tax (VAT) service operated by HM Revenue
and prescribing related data to NHS stakeholders and the general public. For example the Electronic Prescribing
& Financial Information for Practices service (epfip) allows GP practices to interrogate their prescribing data;
manage, monitor and control their prescribing habits and costs; monitor and manage drug expenditure against budget;
it provides a file of the payment data to NHS Connecting for Health to facilitate PCTS making the necessary payment to dispensing practices.
is composed of the Mcdonnell douglas Information system (MDIS) which provides the operator terminals and the Sun Pricing system (SPS)
CIP implemented high-speed scanning equipment and intelligent character recognition software to capture printed information from prescription forms and automatically process the form.
of which are interpreted successfully by the intelligent character recognition software first time. The remaining 30 per cent require manual intervention to identify the customer or prescription information.
and are being replaced with new scanner equipment that is expected to improve both throughput and accuracy,
and avoiding some of the accuracy pitfalls associated with scanning and character recognition. The first release of EPS in 2005 did not include the ability to process payments.
and prescribing related data to NHS stakeholders and the general public (see paragraph 2. 3). 12 Part Two NHS Prescription Services:
and data The prescription pricing service depends on the CIP and legacy systems. Once the information has been captured in either system calculation rules are applied automatically.
we asked the Authority to provide us with service and system performance data for 2010-11 and 2011-12.
We also requested cost data for the prescriptions pricing service for the period 2008-09 to 2013-14 and all cost data relating to the legacy system held by the Authority.
Data on system availability system faults and customer satisfaction did not distinguish between the legacy and CIP systems.
the Authority was only able to provide us with the cost data for 2011-12 and a forecast for 2012-13.
Cost data on those two years was also less detailed than we expect. Service and system performance 3. 3 The key volume measure for the prescription service is the total number of line items listed on each prescription form.
NAO analysis of Authority data 3. 4 The Authority works to a target to process 97.5 per cent of items accurately.
and the 30 per cent of CIP prescriptions that are processed not successfully automatically by the scanning software.
Items that the Authority processed using the legacy system consistently met the accuracy target in 2011-12.
The Authority failed to meet its accuracy target for items processed through the CIP system in 2010-11
the impact of legacy ICT Figure 5 Performance against accuracy target The legacy system consistently met the accuracy target in 2011-12.
Items processed by the CIP system met the accuracy target from October 2011 NOTES 1. CIP accuracy is based on a check of 50,000 transactions a month carried out by an internal quality team.
Legacy accuracy is based on an internal check of 80 transactions from each operator. Source: The Authority 3. 5 The Authority achieved its target for processing
NAO analysis of Authority data 3. 10 The business case envisaged that a further 1. 13 pence (27 per cent of the actual 2011-12 cost) per prescription line item could be saved by the adoption
NAO analysis of Authority data NOTE 1. Costs in 2012-13 are budget estimates. 3. 12 The increase in the Authority's overall ICT costs is due to a £4 million
Strategy and business model Our assessment Key finding Now Future The Authority is taking steps to improve efficiency and accuracy.
or make alternative arrangements. 4. 6 Another aim of the Authority is to continually improve the level of service provided to customers in terms of information accuracy
and speed. 11 The installation of new scanner equipment will help to improve accuracy at the same time as increasing the capacity of the system to help cope with the increasing volume of transactions.
There are two data sources for drug and contractor information: the'CDR'and the'MDR'.'CDR provides drug information for the CIP system,
The drug data held in CDR complies with the NHS Dictionary of Medicines and Devices,
and Social Care. 12 The drug data used by the legacy system use an earlier standard
The legacy Mcdonnell douglas hardware is supported by Northgate on a'best endeavours'basis. 26 Part Four NHS Prescription Services:
hardware and software arrangements are in place to cope with the two systems. The team has an appropriate mix of skills to maintain
We were told that the tests will be arranged after the service provider's imminent data centre relocation, although at the time of our study, staff were still waiting for a date for the move.
and business rules from the processing in separate databases, so that any price, drug or pharmacist changes can be applied easily
and then automatically used by the systems. 4. 28 The CIP system has an inbuilt business rule processing engine based on Java technology.
for example, CIP cannot currently handle prescriptions that are submitted later than the current processing cycle. 4. 29 The Authority has embarked recently on a technology refresh programme-replacing the physical server environment with virtual servers,
The new virtual server environment is expected to provide scalability to respond to the increase in demand,
the impact of legacy ICT 4. 30 The proposed refresh of the scanner equipment is expected to increase the throughput of each scanner from around 17,000 images per hour to 23,000 images per hour at the same time as improving the accuracy of the intelligent character recognition,
In addition, many of the retired units have been retained in storage to provide for spares in case of hardware failure.
and customers. 5. 5 The best potential for accuracy and efficiency improvement appears to rest with the Electronic Prescriptions Service (EPS),
and the inability to integrate with current data standards and systems (e g. EPS) all further the cause to complete the migration to CIP.
Interviews with financial and operational staff Analysis of investment and spend Data analysis of service performance
and service reporting Data analysis of service model including: Semi structured interviews with service and contract management staff, technical stakeholders and representatives from suppliers Document review of ICT and contracting strategies, reviews of the ICT estate,
and representatives from the suppliers Data and document review that encompassed key contracts, technical and design documentation, management information,
Data quality and assurance A clear and consistent strategy for data standards and architecture ensures a coordinated approach to continually improve the quality of information provided by the legacy system.
The sources of data are understood well and business users have trust in the information. Risk management Risk management processes ensure that the business risk appetite is documented
Software media and licence codes are available and regularly confirmed as operational. NHS Prescription Services:
All legacy data have been identified, cleansed and mapped to the new solution and decommissioning costs have been identified.
Technical processes Data management processes are owned in place and by the business and are applied to the legacy system.
Backup and recovery capability of the legacy system is reviewed regularly and tested, and adherence to agreed recovery objectives is measured actively.
and its security controls ensure the confidentiality, availability and integrity of data. External security risk assessments are carried out regularly.
Software versions are current and fully supported with plans in place for future upgrade. Performance. The availability and performance of the legacy system is captured as part of service performance measurement.
Infrastructure The solution is sufficiently scalable to allow the addition or removal of components to meet service demand
Business intelligence systems 2 Ministry of Defence: The use of information to manage the logistics supply chain, March 2011.
Inho Lee and Hagbong Sim of the OECD's Directorate for Science, Technology and Policy prepared the report, with a contribution by Muriel Faverie, FORUM, Université Paris X, Nanterre, France.
9 Benefits of ICT and Internet use...9 ICT adoption and firm performance...11 Use of ICT and Internet among SMES...
11 Adoption of Internet e-commerce by SMES...13 Towards e-business integration...18 II. BARRIERS TO USE...
19 Unsuitability for business...19 Enabling factors: internal ICT and managerial knowledge...20 Cost of developing
44 4 ICT, E-BUSINESS AND SMES EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Information and communication technology (ICT) connectivity (PCS and Internet) is very widespread in businesses of all sizes.
and Internet use programmes. However commercial considerations and potential returns are the principal drivers of small business adoption and profitable use.
Public financial assistance to expand coverage for under-served groups and remote areas could complement private investment where appropriate,
OECD (2003) Statement by the OECD Committee for Information, Computer and Communications Policy, Broadband driving growth:
Intangible investments and assets Firms increasingly rely on intangible investments and assets (skills, organisation, software, networks) for competitiveness and growth.
OECD (2002), Guidelines for the Security of Information systems and Networks: Towards a Culture of Security;
OECD (1998), Ministerial Declarations on the Protection of Privacy in Global networks, on Consumer Protection in the Context of Electronic commerce and on Authentication for Electronic commerce adopted in Ottawa in 1998 C (98) 177, Annexes 1
OECD (1998), OECD Cryptography Policy Guidelines and the Report on Background and Issues of Cryptography Policy;
OECD (1980), OECD Guidelines on the Protection of Privacy and Trans-border Flows of Personal data. 6 Government on-line On-line provision of government information and services can increase the efficiency and coverage
complement private investment with public financial assistance to expand coverage for under-served groups and remote areas.
Business to business networks are restructuring value-chains with potentially very large lock in effects and impacts on small firms.
and could also reinforce clustering around the richest industrial and urban areas, and increase the economic and social disparities between urban and rural populations.
On the small firm using side the rapid growth of software and business method patenting can increase small business costs and the likelihood of infringement.
Despite these advantages, rapid growth in businesses'purchases and sales over the Internet has yet to materialise.
Broad definitions of e-commerce including established EDI as well as Internet transactions) suggest that in 2000 total on-line transactions were generally 10
although they lag behind larger firms in Internet transactions. For small firms to adopt e-business and e-commerce strategies and tools
Beyond a certain level of connectivity (PC, Internet access, on-line information or marketing), not all SMES will necessarily catch up with large firms,
and availability and cost of appropriate interoperable small-firm systems, network infrastructure and Internet-related support services.
AND USE BY SMALL BUSINESSES SMES3 have recognised gradually the positive impact that ICTS, such as computer terminals,
e-mail and the Internet and their applications can have on their business. 4 In advanced OECD countries,
now have at least one computer terminal, usually with Internet access. Many types of business software can improve information
and knowledge management within the firm, leading to more efficient business processes and better firm performance.
Communication via e-mail and the Internet can help to improve external communication, in either B2c or B2b contexts,
Benefits of ICT and Internet use ICT and e-commerce offer benefits for a wide range of business processes.
Seamless transfer of information through shared electronic files and networked computers increases the efficiency of business processes such as documentation,
data processing and other back-office functions (e g. organising incoming orders and preparing invoices). Increasingly sophisticated ICT applications such as KMS (Knowledge management System) and ERP (Enterprise resource planning) allow firms to store,
For example, customer databases with a history of client-specific correspondence help managers and employees to respond more effectively to customers.
A company-wide electronic data source aims to disseminate employees'professional experience, for example tips for winning a contract, from
the Internet and e-commerce have great potential for reducing transaction costs and increasing the speed and reliability of transactions.
Internet-based B2b interaction and real-time communication can reduce information asymmetries between buyers and suppliers and build closer relationships among trading partners (Moodley, 2002.
or Internet commerce are used according to the OECD's narrow definition: the sale or purchase of goods or services conducted over the Internet,
with the goods and services ordered over the Internet, and payment and ultimate delivery of the goods or services either on line or off line.
The OECD's broad definition includes transactions conducted over computer-mediated networks, such as the Internet, EDI (electronic data interchange), Minitel and interactive telephone systems. 10 In the B2c context, the Internet and e-commerce can be effective tools for better communication.
A corporate Web site that provides information on products, services or technologies can enhance the quality of a firm's services to customers
and attract new customers. By collecting information on customers'needs it can be used for product development or innovation.
Eurostat's E-commerce Pilot Survey shows that SMES'motives for Internet commerce include reaching new/more customers, geographic expansion of market and improvement of service quality.
has developed a marketing database, which allows every sales person to access general information about customers and previous correspondence concerning their complaints.
Another firm with 40 employees, has established a company-wide intranet with an on-line BBS (bulletin board system)
These companies'intranet and electronically integrated customer database not only provide the latest client-related information,
once entered into the office computer, simultaneously. This is very different from paper records, which can normally only be consulted by one person at a time
Internet and e-commerce enable SMES that remain in local and regional markets because of a lack of information
Internet technology makes it possible to transmit order information seamlessly between different systems. It can therefore provide small players with an opportunity to join
including those previously inaccessible because of the use of costly closed EDI networks (electronic data interchange).
Moreover, the Internet can convey the ideas of knowledge-based small businesses. Extensive use of ICT can allow micro-enterprises with ideas
and some micro-enterprises have generated substantial global sales by exploiting their intellectual property over the Internet. 11 ICT adoption
and organisational changes as well as direct costs of investing in hardware and software solutions. While many studies provide evidence of the positive effects of ICT adoption on firm performance,
others have shown no relation between computer use and firm performance. 5 A study of Canadian manufacturing establishments (plants) with ten or more employees (excluding food processing establishments) drawn from Statistics Canada's Business Register,
especially when they used communication technologies, including company-wide and/or inter-company computer networks. Recent OECD analysis shows the impacts of ICTS
and Internet among SMES The use of ICT by SMES is increasingly common according to survey for OECD countries.
A Eurostat survey on e-commerce shows that nine out of ten SMES were equipped with computers at the end of 2000/early 2001.
While Internet penetration is generally higher in larger enterprises the gap between larger firms and SMES is narrowing.
In most OECD countries, Internet penetration rates for medium-sized firms (50-249 employees) are the same and sometimes higher than for larger firms (more than 250 employees), with penetration rates
or sales, is associated not with computer use (Bitler, 2001). 12 Differences in Internet access in the 21 countries for
which data are available seem to be greater for smaller enterprises. The Nordic countries have a more homogeneous distribution across firms of different sizes,
while in countries with lower Internet penetration (Portugal, Greece, Mexico) there are larger dispersions across firms in different size classes (OECD, 2002c).
Figure 1. Internet penetration by size class, 2001 or latest available year Percentage of businesses using the Internet 50 60 70 80 90 100finland Sweden
The source for these data is the Eurostat Community Survey on enterprise use of ICT.
Note 3. Internet and other computer-mediated networks. Source: OECD, ICT database and Eurostat, Community Survey on ICT usage in enterprises 2002, May 2003.
Data available from surveys in some countries indicate that SMES use the Internet (and e-mail) for better external communications and as a means of obtaining business information.
In Japan, the most common use of the Internet is general information searches (Figure 2). Other uses include communication via e-mail,
providing information about a company's products, services and technologies via the corporate Web site, order exchanges with regular customers, recruitment and receiving customer feedback.
office equipment and software over the Internet, but only a small share conduct B2c and B2b Internet e-commerce for nonstandard products.
A study of 484 SMES with fewer than 250 employees in Lanarkshire (Scotland) shows a similar pattern of Internet use.
Around 60%of the firms with the Internet use it to learn about competitors, customers or suppliers.
Other major uses include providing product information (56%),setting up a Web page (54%),purchasing goods/services (53%)and building customer connections (48%)(Scally et al.
2001). 13 Figure 2. Internet use by SMES in Japan, 2001 6%8%17%18%20%23%33%43%68%82%0
%20%40%60%80%100%B2b e-commerce B2c e-commerce Software purchase Purchasing materials/office equipment Receiving custmer's feedback Recruitment Order
exhanges with regular clients PR of products/services/technologies E-mails with clients Genral information search Note:
Percentage of responses of 1 700 SMES with 300 or fewer employees using the Internet as of August 2001.
Adoption of Internet e-commerce by SMES Computers and access to the Internet have become common in most OECD countries,
but sales and purchases over the Internet have yet to take off. While available data suggest that electronic commerce is growing,
it still accounts for a relatively small proportion of economic activity for firms of all sizes.
Taking a wide definition of electronic commerce to cover transactions over computer-mediated networks (including traditional EDI) and inter-firm transactions,
Purchasing over the Internet is more common than selling. For 16 countries for which both Internet purchasing and Internet sales data are available, only one in eight on average reported making Internet sales.
Twice as many businesses on average use the Internet for purchases as for sales (Figure 3), with between 63%and 93%of businesses reported using the Internet,
except in Greece and Luxembourg (OECD, 2002c). 14 Figure 3. Businesses using the Internet for purchasing and selling,
20011 Percentage of businesses with ten or more employees 0 20 40 60 80 100 Denmark Japan (2) Finland Sweden Australia New zealand Austria Norway
Netherlands (3) Italy Portugal Canada (4) Spain United kingdom (5) Luxembourg Greece%Businesses using the Internet Businesses receiving orders over the Internet Businesses ordering over the Internet Note:
The results of the Eurostat survey are based on a selection of industries that changes slightly across countries.
Denmark and Norway also survey personal services. 1. Beginning of 2001 for Internet use; purchases and sales refer to 2000, for Canada,
for Denmark and Norway, Internet use refers to 2002 and purchases and sales refer to 2001.2.
and placed refer to Internet and other computer-mediated networks. 4. All businesses. 5. Orders received
and placed over the Internet and other computer-mediated networks. Source: OECD, ICT database, August 2002;
Eurostat, E-commerce Pilot Survey 2001. The situation is similar for SMES, but they lag behind larger firms.
The gap between SMES and larger firms is greater for Internet purchases than for Internet sales.
In Norway, for instance, more than 70%of firms with 250 or more employees reported on-line purchases,
In other OECD countries, Internet purchasing seems to be sensitive to firm size, with the largest firms having the highest percentages of purchases.
However, the propensity to sell over the Internet seems less sensitive to firm size. The difference between large firms and SMES is less than 10%,except in the United kingdom. In Australia, Denmark and Sweden,
smaller businesses that use the Internet appear to have roughly same propensity to sell over the Internet as larger ones (Figure 4). 15 Figure 4. Internet purchases and sales by size class,
or placed over the Internet and other computer-mediated networks. Source: OECD, ICT database, August 2002;
Eurostat, E-commerce Pilot Survey 2001. In terms of volume, Internet sales by SMES are far below those of larger firms.
In the case of larger businesses in European countries (Figure 5), a maximum of 10.6%of businesses (in Sweden) had more than 5%of sales originating on the Internet in 2000,
and a maximum of 1. 2%of businesses (in Denmark) had Internet sales whose value was more than 50%of overall sales.
However, for smaller businesses, Internet sales are lower relatively, with around 11%of businesses having a share of Internet sales greater than 1%,
%compared to over 19%in the case of larger firms (in Sweden)( OECD 2002c. 16 Figure 5. Distribution of e-commerce sales in European countries, 2000 Percentage of businesses for any given country whose sales over the Internet as a share of total sales are greater than 1%,2
%,5%,10%,25%or 50%in larger and smaller businesses Source: OECD, based on Eurostat, E-commerce Pilot Survey 2001.
There have been some indications that the number of businesses selling on line is declining and e-commerce is being concentrated in fewer, larger businesses.
In Australia, over the period July 1999-June 2001, selling over the Internet by micro-enterprises with 5-9 employees declined from 16%to 13%and by firms with 10-49 employees from 21%to 18,
Most Internet e-commerce transactions are domestic rather than cross-border transactions (Figure 6). The Eurostat's E-commerce Pilot Survey indicates that European companies mainly sell over the Internet to locations within Europe.
In Austria, Denmark and Finland, exports to Europe represent between 55%and 63%of total exports of goods. The share of international Internet sales is particularly small in the United kingdom,
The company has initiated a project called E-Choupal that places computers with Internet access in rural farming village.
The computer, typically housed in the farmer's house, is linked to the Internet via phone lines or, increasingly by a VSAT connection.
It serves an average of 600 farmers in 10 surrounding villages within about a five kilometres radius. Each E-Choupal costs between USD 3 000
The farmers can use the computer to assess daily closing prices on local markets, as well as to track global price trends
South africa, Brazil, Chile, China, India, Russia and Singapore. 18 Figure 6. Share of Internet sales in domestic and international markets, 2000 or latest available year
OECD, ICT database, August 2002; Eurostat, E-commerce Pilot Survey 2001. Towards e-business integration Some businesses, mainly early adopters of e-commerce, are entering the next stage of ICT use, e-business.
BARRIERS TO USE There is a wide range of reasons why SMES do not make more active use of the Internet and ebusiness.
cost factors (costs of ICT equipment and networks, software and reorganisation, and ongoing costs; and security and trust factors (security and reliability of e-commerce systems, uncertainty of payment methods, legal frameworks.
A recent survey of SMES with fewer than 250 employees in 19 European countries shows that around 40%do not use the Internet for selling
because they consider that Internet e-commerce does not suit their type of business and/or products (Figure 7). Other reasons for not conducting on-line sales include lack of personnel with appropriate ICT skills, concerns over unbalanced costs and benefits, insufficient customer access to Internet
and technology concerns, such as on-line security. In Canada, among businesses that did not buy or sell over the Internet,
56%believed that their goods or services did not lend themselves to Internet transactions. Figure 7. SMES in Europe:
Reasons for not using the Internet for selling, 2001 3%5%16%16%40%2%9%14%20%40%3%6%18%17%43%0%10%20%30
%40%50%Do not trust technology/security Customer's access to Internet is insufficient It w ould not pay off No skilled personnel Does not apply to the type of enterprise/product Micro firms w ith 0
-9 employees Small firms w ith 10-49 employees Medium firms w ith 50-249 employees Note:
Percentage of 1 427 firms with fewer than 250 employees not using the Internet in 19 countries (15 EU member states plus Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway and Switzerland.
In sectors such as construction and among some small retailers, the view that Internet e-commerce is unsuitable for their business is relatively strong.
Some SMES in transport services also consider that the Internet does not suit their industry.
A firm with 90 employees and an emphasis on personal contact with clients decided not to adopt the Internet after a three-month trial of a Web site (Mehrtens et al.
Very few of its regular customers had used the Internet, and some preferred receiving confirmation of their order via fax or telephone.
These concerns are genuine and come from the practical judgement of SMES on the benefits ebusiness will bring.
The firms that adopt Internet and e-commerce are likely to have within the firm someone who has a reasonable amount of knowledge of the specific technology and/or technology in general.
A study of small ICT companies with 3-80 employees suggests that the Internet was adopted by firms with personnel who understand the technology (Mehrtens et al.
lack of ICT expertise within the firm is not necessarily an obstacle to the decision to adopt Internet e-commerce.
By 2000, annual e-commerce sales of magnet products via the site had reached already more than USD 700 000,
and the site has remained operational and generating revenue through 2004, although they still do not accept customers outside of Japan.
In 1996 a company employee bought a personal computer at his own expense to use the Internet.
which helped the company to create the Web page and took training to enable him to update it.
To increase the number of visits to the site, the company used both an on-line campaign and off-line advertising.
A free magnet offer campaign on the Web site combined with an on-line questionnaire to (potential) customers lured 1 000 visitors to the site during the peak early month.
an on-line product catalogue was added later to the site. After the local newspaper covered the company's e-commerce growth,
other small firms in the region were encouraged to engage in Internet e-commerce. SMES may also lack managerial understanding and skills for e-business.
and to redefine their core competence and positions in the value chains. So, e-business tools cannot be introduced successfully
if the cost of basic Internet use is well within their marketing Budget for example, in the United states, typical Internet charges USD 10-35 a year for a domain name (i e.
E-commerce maintenance and upgrades can be very costly, especially when firms prefer a highly sophisticated virtual shop.
Web site maintenance and 22 upgrades may increase over time as the volume of on-line transactions grows,
In fact, some small shop owners, especially those that outsource Web page design and updating have found it difficult to contain site development costs
which are more or less beyond the firm's control (Ernst & young, 2001). Figure 8. Ongoing e-commerce costs for SMES in Australia,
2000 54%19%9%7%4%3%3%1%Website maintenance Telephony ISP charges/website hosting Responding to e-mails Advertising License fees Bank fees
Percentage of total investment in Internet e-commerce. N=34. Source: Ernst & young (2001. Logistics services, e g. package collection and delivery, also matter.
Items such as software, music and books can be delivered over the Internet, but the volume of such on-line delivery is still very small.
or by the individual or business customer with a slow Internet connection and small download capacity rather than a high-speed (broadband) connection.
access and interoperability The availability of a wide range of Internet connections and other communication services, preferably at competitive prices, is very important in that it allows small businesses to choose different and appropriate services according to their specific needs and (initial
Fixed telecommunication networks are likely to continue to serve as the primary means of Internet access for many SMES because of their relatively lower cost.
The basic telecommunication infrastructure is in place in many OECD countries, although the development of reliable fixed communication networks is an important policy area for e-commerce readiness,
especially in the emerging economies (Box 4). Most OECD countries have a similar number of fixed telecommunication access lines,
The telecommunications infrastructure is also growing rapidly in non OECD countries, but there are very wide differences among non-countries as shown in Figure 9,
despite areas of very advanced use of telecommunications to support its very rapidly growing and globally competitive IT and ICT-enabled services industry. 23 Figure 9. Fixed and mobile phone growth in seven non-OECD countries and the United states per 1, 000 people 1195.6 1
, 117.90 574.8 364.3 281.1 43.8 743.1 921.4 268.8 385 164.9 182.1 203.6 247.7 88.6 23.1 0 200 400 600 800
Slow Internet connections and data transfer have discouraged in fact some SMES from adopting Internet: a majority of SMES with 10-249 employees in Austria, Greece, Italy, Luxembourg, Spain, Portugal and the United kingdom indicated excessively slow or unstable data communication as a major hindrance to Internet use (Eurostat, 2002.
Broadband penetration rates have accelerated rapidly in most OECD countries recently although it is very uneven across countries (Figure 10).
(or speed of data transfer) provided on a telecommunications network via high-speed Internet access. See OECD (2004) recommendation of the Council on Broadband Development. 24 Figure 10.
Business use of the Internet via broadband connection (xdsl) by firm size, 2001 Percentage of businesses with ten or more employees using the Internet 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Finland Italy Austria Spain Portugal
United kingdom Luxembourg Greece%10-49 50-249 250+10+Source: OECD, ICT database and Eurostat, E-commerce Pilot Survey 2001, August 2002.
Increased competition in the telecommunications industry has been driving down access costs. For example, prices of leased lines,
which provide the infrastructure for B2b e-commerce, have fallen significantly in recent years, following widespread liberalisation in the communications sector in Europe (Figure 12).
Internet access prices are a key determinant of Internet and e-commerce use by individuals and businesses (Figure 13).
Countries with lower access costs typically have a greater number of Internet hosts, and electronic commerce has developed rapidly in countries with unmetered (flat-rate) access (OECD, 2001a).
Unmetered access was available from the leading telecommunication carrier in 12 OECD countries by the beginning of 2001
Price of leased lines in the OECD area, May 2002 Charges for a basket of national leased lines of 2 megabits per second
Price of 40 hours of Internet use at peak times, August 2001, in PPP dollars OECD Internet access basket for 40 hours at peak times using discounted PSTN rates1
OECD, Telecommunications Database, June 2002.26 Box 4. Network infrastructure in developing economies For most developing economies the highest priority is to put in place the network infrastructure and a competitive environment
Developing countries with widespread access to telecommunications and network services (i e. 40 mainlines or more per 100 people) are rare.
For low-income and rural populations, universal access programmes are needed to make adequate telecommunications available in areas where telecommunication operators cannot
for example, telecommunication operators are required to contribute 1%of total revenues to a fund aimed at providing services to those excluded from the market.
but Thailand led in early Internet use with almost double the users (almost 8) per 100 inhabitants in 2002,
In the same year, Iran led both countries with 19 mainlines but less than five Internet users per 100
%but inequalities in income distribution means the Internet is not affordable for a large proportion of the population.
In 2002,8%of the population in Brazil were Internet users and almost 10%in Mexico, very much lower than Europe and the US (ITU data, 2004.
Some placed detailed corporate information on the site to illustrate their technology and financial base (Tiessen et al.
consumers who use credit cards for on-line transactions are concerned highly about security, protection of credit-related information and secure system firewalls.
hackers) are among the most important perceived barriers to Internet use by businesses (B2b and B2c),
and have a larger share of transactions over the Internet (OECD, 2002c). Barriers to Internet commerce for businesses included payment uncertainties and contract, delivery and guarantee uncertainties, with very wide variations in perceived barriers across countries,
and unsuitability the major barrier. Payment uncertainties were relatively important in Italy, Spain, Austria, the United kingdom,
Small and large businesses facing barriers to Internet payments, 2000 Percentage of businesses using a computer with ten or more employees 05 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 Italy Spain Austria United kingdom Finland
Greece Denmark Luxembourg Sweden Portugal%10-49 50-249 250+10+Source: Eurostat, E-commerce Pilot Survey 2001.
and legal protection for Internet purchases are the two first obstacles pointed out in the CRITO global survey (2 139 firms in 10 countries)
Overall, SMES are more sensitive to local environmental obstacles than large firms (costs of Internet access, business laws, prevalence of credit card use in the country, taxation of Internet sales),
for face to face interaction 38.7 31.5 38.3 32.6 30.2 32.5 31.0 28.3 30.6 33.8 Concern about privacy of data or security issues 47.4 61.1 48.1 48.4 55.1
48.6 45.4 44.7 45.3 44.2 Customers do not use the technology 26.9 27.4 26.9 48.5 20.0 47.6 33.6 27.8 32.6 31.4 Finding staff with ecommerce
32.6 41.1 32.9 22.2 23.1 22.4 23.9 Level of ability to use the Internet as part of business strategy 21.5 27.0 21.8 22.3 24.8 22.4 31.8
34.9 32.2 34.8 31.9 22.2 31.6 40.8 40.4 40.8 24. 2 Taxation of Internet sales 28.5 23.6 28.3 27.1 17.6 26.8
19.9 15.6 19.1 16.5 Inadequate legal protection for Internet purchases 42.6 63.5 43.6 41.6 34.4 41.4 55.7 49.1 54.5 34.1 Source:
and the inherent biases introduced by the methodology (a questionnaire by telephone) mean that only the most advanced firms were included in low-income countries.
Legal uncertainties Most Internet e-commerce transactions are domestic rather than cross-border. Although there may be other reasons,
In another European commission survey, a small percentage of small firms with 10-49 employees indicated national differences in consumer protection as the most important reason for not using the Internet (European commission, 2002a.
The fear of being left with no satisfactory recourse against a transaction counterpart has been remarkably persistent among Internet users.
In the United states, 60%of Internet users indicate difficulties in obtaining satisfactory redress as a reason for reluctance to buy on line (OECD, 2002d.
and hardly justify costly legal procedures or even other (self) efforts, such as insisting on contract fulfilment through available means of communication (e g. phone, fax,
and restructure business processes to make better use of the Internet and the potential of e-business.
The OECD's EBIP (Electronic commerce Business Impacts Project) study undertook in depth interviews with 217 firms that were early adopters of Internet and e-business strategies (OECD
telecommunication costs) were seen also as largely positive for adopting firms when compared with benefits from e-commerce and e-business.
except that small firms generally had less well-formed opinions about factors affecting their Internet efforts,
and automobiles to illustrate sectoral differences in e-business and Internet strategies. Internet e-commerce can enable businesses to reach a wider
and possibly more targeted range of customers either locally or globally, either in B2b transactions (automobiles, textiles) or B2c transactions (textiles, tourism, parts of retail
Cross-sector surveys show that there are some differences in the use of the Internet by SMES across different sectors.
In Europe, only around a third of SMES receive orders over the Internet. Their most common use of the Internet is for distribution of product/service information (Figure 15.
A slightly higher percentage of firms in manufacturing, wholesale and business services receive orders over the Web than those in retail and construction.
Some SMES send order confirmations via the Internet, although it is not clear how many of these orders were received over the Web rather than through other means, such as fax or telephone.
Figure 15. SMES in Europe: commercial activities using the Internet, 2001 58%63%63%68%71%26%33%37%38%35%24%26%31%29%30%0%20%40%60
%80%Construction Retail Wholesale Manufacturing business services Distribute information on products Receiving orders Order confirmation Source:
European commission (2002a. Note: Percentage of responses of firms with fewer than 250 employees using the Internet in 19 countries (15 EU member states plus Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway and Switzerland.
The number of respondents is as follows: construction: 863; retail: 816 firms; wholesale: 842; manufacturing: 1 098;
Tourism In tourism, an area dominated by SMES in OECD countries, some small tour operators, hotels and inns, restaurants and travel agencies have been active in fostering cross-border Internet e-commerce.
The Internet allows travellers direct access to travel recommendations, reviews and local tourism information, many
Small players with a Web page can now attract those preferring personalised (and possibly less expensive) services.
Since the Internet and many travel-related sites allow on-line customers to compare the price of 32 air tickets and other travel services,
The volume of Internet e-commerce in tourism, has grown very rapidly, but still largely involves ticketing for passenger transportation and accommodation.
The Internet is used mainly for travel-related information and promotion. In the United states, where on-line travel sales grew rapidly from USD 400 million in 1997 to USD 22.7 billion in 2002
in the United states, over 64 million people used the Internet for travel planning, little changed from 2002 due to the slower growth of wired households,
but over 42 million people (30 percent of the adult population) used the Internet to book travel online, up 8 percent from 2002,
These characteristics make tourism products very well suited for purchase over the Internet. In addition, most travel products, like air travel and hotel rooms, are perishable and last-minute on-line sales provide a new distribution channel
Transaction costs over the Internet can be significantly lower than those of traditional distribution channels.
However, use of Internet commerce in the tourism sector is likely to concentrate on B2c rather than B2b transactions,
as incompatibility between systems (e g. central/computer reservation systems) and the dominance of relatively small agents and suppliers with less ICT capability may impede efficient electronic transactions along the supply chain for B2b transactions (Department
Retail Use of Internet commerce among SMES in the retail industry is lower than in business services and manufacturing.
Several studies suggest that even the most price-sensitive Internet consumers respond very strongly to well-known, heavily branded (large) retailers, such as amazon com.
An early study of Internet brand establishment analysing 20 000 on-line consumers who compared and purchased books from 33 on-line bookshops found that most did not choose the lowest price offer
along with music and video, books and magazines and software, are among the leading consumer products sold over the Internet (OECD, 2002c).
Again, small suppliers and shops have not necessarily been enthusiastic about the adoption of costly EDI or the Internet.
It uses the Internet to receive orders and to send digital images of products only to known clients (which then sell to other buyers).
Another textile producer with 300 employees does not use the Web for buying and selling because the company is worried about decreasing their competitive advantage by making information available to competitors (Scupola, 2002).
Other textile companies, partly because it is relatively easy to copy products, do not want to lose control over their designs
Brian decided to use the Internet to reach much a wider market without radically increasing his overhead costs.
which the customer can listen to through a desktop computer. The price of the instruments ranges from GBP 295 to GBP 7 000.
The site has attracted customers not only in the United kingdom and Ireland but also throughout the world Australia;
The Web site now includes a customer feedback page that carries comments by customers who have bought an instrument through the site.
Some customers, impressed by the presentation of the instrument on the site visit the physical shop.
The Web site can also be found through Violink, a popular violin-related site among individuals,
Source: UK E-commerce Awards (http://www. ecommerce-awards. co. uk/)and the company Web site (http://www. westcountryviolins. com). 34 Small retailers may not be comfortable
Although direct access to stock data is technically feasible and can help to minimise inventories
some retailers do not provide their suppliers with electronic access to such data. They continue to order over the phone
or via fax (Moodley, 2002). B2b on-line marketplaces and auction sites have also not been attractive to many SMES in the sector particularly in the light of most of these markets proving to be unstable and short-lived.
Automobiles In the automobile industry, B2b transactions via EDI have a 30-year history. Many first-tier suppliers in Europe, Japan and the United states have established real-time connections with large car manufacturers to respond to the latter's requests for design/production processes reflecting their changing demands and specifications for justin
see EDI (and its recent Internet forms) as a strategic necessity for not losing business with car producers
EDI systems in advanced OECD countries have attempted to integrate different communication networks into a single Internet network.
high speed and security measures to protect the transmission of confidential data and other critical messages.
The Internet-based EDI, ANX (Automotive Network Exchange) was started in 1994 and operated in the United states from 1998-2002
Summary The adoption and use of Internet and e-business strategies depend on sector characteristics. The products of services like tourism,
are suited well for purchase over the Internet. In addition, in sectors such as tourism and parts of retail and finance
Barriers to Internet commerce also vary among sectors. In tourism, incompatibility of systems and the dominance of relatively small agents with less capability impedes efficient Internet transactions along the supply chain, especially for B2b transactions.
In the retail sector, the problem of confidence building seems more crucial. In manufacturing sectors
POLICY IMPLICATIONS SMES have been slower than larger firms to adopt Internet and e-business strategies despite the potential benefits.
All OECD countries have introduced programmes to speed SME e-business and Internet development. However, the recent features of e-business and Internet use will also structure policy.
First and foremost, most e-commerce is B2b rather than B2c, which means government policy needs to focus on value chain participation.
Next, most Internet e-commerce transactions are domestic rather than cross-border. Finally use varies widely among sectors,
Governments have used many policies to encourage the diffusion of e-business and Internet use from fostering technological diffusion to creating a favourable business environment with fair and predictable rules.
In addition, the policy agenda has also been evolving, with the focus shifting from connectivity and building simple web presence,
Not all SMES will catch up with large firms beyond a certain level of connectivity (PC, Internet access, on-line marketing.
if Internet commerce is unsuitable for their business, or if expected benefits are outweighed by costs.
Some are sophisticated as users of the Internet and e-business as larger firms, while others make no use at all.
The availability of a wide range of high quality Internet and communication services at competitive prices is particularly important
In particular, broadband, characterised by high-speed, always-on connection and two-way capability, allows faster access and delivery of existing on-line services and new applications and services such as streaming audio and video over the Internet
and the rapid growth of Wifi are also important. The price and availability of broadband access depends to a large extent on competition in the infrastructure market
Governments should also ensure open and competitive telecommunication markets so that SMES can choose among various technologies and services for high-speed Internet access.
as these generally represent the initial opportunity for SMES to obtain affordable higher speed Internet connections (OECD, 2001b).
In developing countries, multi-user services can be a very important tool for increasing coverage
open source software has been proposed as an economically viable solution for establishing and upgrading ICT systems. It can enhance system interoperability
High levels of concern about on-line security, changes in technologies and the overall on-line environment are reflected in the 2002 OECD Guidelines for the Security of Information systems and Networks:
Towards a Culture of Security, a revision of the 1992 OECD Guidelines on Security of Information systems.
The open architecture of the Internet does not necessarily result in more open markets, because e-commerce among businesses is initiated usually by dominant companies in value chains.
E-business and Internet strategies appear to be reinforcing market structures and the role of these companies.
While Internet commerce provides SMES with opportunities to participate in new supply chains and markets,
Open source software has been proposed as one means of reducing anti-competitive pressures. It may be easier for small firms to have relationships with larger firms at lower cost
if open source fosters wider compatibility between different applications and operating systems and lowers the cost of ICT adoption.
Most competition authorities in OECD countries, independently or in co-operation with others in different jurisdictions, have examined how on-line markets
and obligatory requirements and interoperability with these services, affecting their choice of systems and software.
Technology neutrality and the interoperability of a variety of network infrastructures and software is essential
can also provide SMES with new incentives to adopt Internet and e-commerce in order to enter new markets.
and Internet programmes focused on SMES. Three new directions are emerging in such policies. These are in addition to initiatives that aim at facilitating the participation of SMES in e-business value chains rather than simply encouraging them to adopt e-commerce.
The Web site includes guidance on how to buy a computer, get connected and set up a Web site and reports on ICT and e-commerce.
Netherlands Netherlands Go Digital Supports trade organisations in the development of an ICT strategy to stimulate their members'Internet and e-commerce adoption.
NET site (www. ause. net) and ebiz. enable site (www. strategis. ic. gc. ca/sc indps/ebiz/engdoc/homepage. php.
and initiatives for reducing the digital divide (OECD, 2002b, see Table 3). Most governments provide ICT training
Training is provided increasingly over the Internet and, in some cases, in conjunction with ICT and e-commerce awareness and business consultation services.
of Continuous Training for Traders and SMES offer training courses on the Internet. Forem's Web site provides a meeting place for businesses (e g. job vacancy advertising), a list of training programmes and aids for training.
and college students as student business advisors to provide customised Internet and e-commerce training to SMES.
Greece Go Online The project of the Ministry of Development aims to introduce 50 000 SMES to the digital economy.
Spain A programme is designed for micro-enterprises (fewer than 20 employees) in small towns with a special emphasis on training in the use of the Internet, e-mail and new management techniques.
Turkey KOSGEB KOSGEB, with more than 40 service centres and 25 Internet cafés across the country contributes to building computer and Internet literacy in SMES.
United kingdom Learndirect SMES are a priority group for the on-line service. Each course, looking at a specific business issue, allows SME managers
The EU covers a wide range of e-business environment, Internet and ICT use issues. eeurope 2005,
and exploit e-business and Internet strategies. In addition, specific policies have been common in areas seen to be crucial for initial uptake (e g. awareness, managerial and ICT skills.
Continue to ensure open, competitive telecommunication markets that offer a range of interoperable technological options and network services (particularly broadband) of appropriate quality and price.
and ecommerce to monitor progress and improve cross-country analysis . However there is no one-size-fits all approach to policy
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