quantitattive methods Any sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguishable from magic (Arthur C. Clarke) 1. Introduction Is there something phoney about foresight,
Staton (2006) drew out the poverty of foresight if Derrida's claim that foresight does not say much about the future is accepted.
but get to the root of what foresight, as the outcome of anticipation, appreciation and learning, can say about something that does not exist.
Are these the characteristics of foresight, the institutional practice, now in vogue? In the present context, with its emphasis on science and technology, is embedded foresight in diminuendo in its corresponding social and commercial expectations?
The essence of what follows is to rediscover the interdependence, and sometimes interlocking, role of ignorance (Roberts and Armitage 2008;
Again particular kinds of expertise are needed based on the three components of foresight that run throughout the business's activities,
Retracing ones steps to Derrida's criticism, real foresight (Loveridge 2001), perhaps more so than its institutional practice, can have much to say about the future recognising that ultimately the future is a‘black hole'.
If foresight or its institutional counterpart say nothing about the future as Derrida claims, then it is
and in doing so to initiate the three embodiments of real foresight: this role for FTA is discussed further in the next section. 3. Characteristics of FTA as an umbrella activity FTA focuses on the need and potential to address disruptive transformations in response to grand societal challenges.
FTAIS said to provide a common umbrella for foresight, forecasting and technology assessment research techniques of and for their respective communities.
what are believed commonly to be the metaphors from foresight, forecasting and technology assessment: all have a long history and an equally long and growing catalogue of techniques to use:
Currentftacomponents of foresight, forecasting and TA are simply not able to cope with the welter of information now available to anyone with the wit to look for it nor is FTA able to cope with the increasing complexity of the tasks it faces, often with very significant political interventions and implications.
foresight does not and cannot say anything about the future (2) The presence of ignorance in all its manifestations needs to be constantly in mind enabling any FTA to be framed
representations of the opinions and beliefs of their designers (4) The commonly believed metaphors of foresight,
and strategy making with particular emphasis upon Foresight methodologies and their implementation in science, technology and social fields.
Foresight Seven paradoxes. International Journal of Technology management 21, nos 7/8: 781 91. Loveridge, D. 2009.
Foresight: The art and science of anticipating the future. Newyork: Routledge. M'Pherson, P. K. 1974.
How are selected foresight methods. Foresight 10, no. 6: 62 89. Popper, Sir K. 1957. The poverty of historicism.
London and Henley: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Roberts, J, . and J. Armitage. 2008. The ignorance economy.
Monstrous foresight. In Second international Seville seminar on future oriented technology analysis: Impact of fta approaches on policy and decision-making, Theme 2 FTAEVALUATION, Impact and Learning, September 28 29, Seville, 12 pp.
http://www. tandfonline. com/loi/ctas20 Navigating foresight in a sea of expectations: lessons from the sociology of expectations Harro van Lente a a Department of Innovation studies, Copernicus Institute of Sustainable development, Utrecht University, 3508 TC, Utrecht, The netherlands Published online:
Harro van Lente (2012) Navigating foresight in a sea of expectations: lessons from the sociology of expectations, Technology analysis & Strategic management, 24:8, 769-782, DOI:
8 september 2012,769 782 Navigating foresight in a sea of expectations: lessons from the sociology of expectations Harro van Lente*Department of Innovation studies, Copernicus Institute of Sustainable development, Utrecht University, 3508 TC Utrecht, The netherlands Foresight can be described as the articulation of possible futures.
It has a range of applications and is used with different methods, for different objectives and in different settings.
Yet, anticipaatio in science and technology is limited not to foresight, but occurs in many more informal ways.
and discusses the implications of this condition for foresigght The range of foresight studies is reviewed as well as the main results of the sociology of expectations,
and it is discussed how these support or limit the ambitions of foresight. Keywords: technology and innovation studies;
foresight; technological change and dynamics 1. Introduction While foresight has been developed into an important instrument for both firms
and policymakking the active exploration of the future is by no means a privilege of foresight methods. Anticipation occurs in many more domains, in particular, in areas of science and technology,
which are predicated on ideas of progress. Innovation studies have shown and discussed how expectations are part and parcel of all professional practices
Foresight exercises, or‘formal'assessments of the future, thus, are surrounded by‘informaal assessments of the future (Salo 2001).
This particular condition will have consequences for the established foresight approaches. This paper conceptually and empirically investigates the phenomenon that socio-technical developments are shot through with informal anticipations
and discusses the implications for formal foresight exercises of science and technology. The central question of this paper is whether and howforesight exercises,
and limits the efficacy of foresight. In particular, two questions stand*Email: h. vanlente@uu. nl ISSN 0953-7325 print/ISSN 1465-3990 online 2012 Taylor & francis http://dx. doi. org/10.1080/09537325.2012.715478
How to characterise and understand the condition of foresight being surrounded by ongoing informal future assessments?
What are the implications of this condition for the efficacy and practice of foresight? The next section will review the range of foresight exercises and their methods, objectives and settings.
Section 3 will discuss the main findings of the sociology of expectations, which studies the informal production and circulation of expectations in science and technology.
and relevance of foresight. 2. Foresight exercises Various forms of foresight have been developed to support strategic decision-making amongst firms
During the last decades, dedicated foresight practices have emerged and various approaches and tools have been developed and evaluated (Coates et al. 2001;
Foresight can be characterized as a systemic instrument aiming at enhanced capabilities in innovation systems and their parts.
Foresight activities are seen as functions not only to identify promising technological pathways but also to engage relevant stakeholders and create common visions into action.
Generally, foresight is distinguished according to method, objectives and setting. Various typologies of methods are available, and the review article of Porter (2004) lists the nine families of foresight methods including quantitative and qualitative explorations and forms of stakeholder involvement.
The objectives of foresight may also differ. The basic idea is that decision-making in firms
and policy-settings will benefit from explorations of the future (Gordon, Glenn, and Jakil 2005.
Foresight exercises provide policy with better problem definitions, ensuring more involvement of stakeholders and help to implement the policy (Harper et al. 2008).
In their review of theories and practices of foresight in Europe, Da Costa et al. 2008) list six,
‘functions'of foresight for policy-making, see Table 1. Others cluster the intended benefits of foresight into three different objectives (Könnölä, Brummeer and Salo 2007;
Foresight helps to highlight and evaluate alternative paths. Second, foresight might help to build networks
and reinforce the connectivity of the innovation system. This can be through the creation of new combinations or the enhancement of existing networks.
A third objective of foresight is to build a consensual vision of the future in order to harmonise strategies of the different stakeholders.
Apart from methods and objectives, foresight exercises also differ in the settings in which they are used.
Foresight has different users, varying from governmental agencies, funding agencies to individual research institutes or firms (Luiten, van Lente, and Blok 2006).
the daily production of research and innovation Downloaded by University of Bucharest at 05:02 03 december 2014 Navigating foresight in a sea of expectations 771 Table 1. Functions of foresight for policy-making.
) Table 2. Foresight objectives in relation to the arenas of governance. Arenas of governance Foresight objective Priority-setting Networking Building visions Strategic orientation Macro policy priority-setting National/EU level stakeholders networks Overall political
level vision building Programming Programmes scientific priority-setting Programmes stakeholders networks Sectoral vision building, context of roadmaps Performing Research institutions strategic processes Research institutions
and present the following comprehensive overview (Table 2). Foresight is exercised also in firms, where it tends to be framed in costs and benefits (Reger 2001;
and consider what they mean for the process of foresight. After all, the conscious and deliberate production of expectations in foresight occurs in an environment where promises
expectations, visions already Abound in general, the social sciences emphasise that human activities are oriented intrinsically towards the future.
And the modalities may range from taken Downloaded by University of Bucharest at 05:02 03 december 2014 Navigating foresight in a sea of expectations 773 for granted statements that do not meet any resistance,
Such response may be amplified by foresight reports, such as the roadmaps on the hydrogen economy (Bakker, van Lente, and Meeus 2011).
This mutual positioning again may be reinforced by foresight reports that stipulate actions and agendas. The term‘self-fulfilling prophecy'has now become so familiar that the term itself seems to explain the phenomenon,
Downloaded by University of Bucharest at 05:02 03 december 2014 Navigating foresight in a sea of expectations 775 3. 3. Expectations
This provides other opportunities for foresight and assessments. For example, constructive technology assessment (CTA) does not intend to give a final decision about the prospects of a technical development,
For foresight exercises, it is relevant to consider that the constructivist perspective acknowledges that others are in the same situation as those who judge the expectations (Van't Klooster and Van Asselt 2011.
for instance provided by roadmaps or other foresight results. The term Figure 1. Outwitting the hype cycle.
www. gartner. com. Downloaded by University of Bucharest at 05:02 03 december 2014 Navigating foresight in a sea of expectations 777‘niche'has been introduced to denote this protection (Vergragt 1988) and traces back to the evolutionary metaphor
Overarching vague visions that initiate and coordinate projects may run into trouble as soon they become more specific. 4. Lessons for foresight Foresight concerns a diverse set of policy exercises with different methods, objectives and settings(‘arenas'.
'In general, foresight can be described as the articulation of possible futures, intended as a realistic outlook, as a mirror to the current situation,
In companies, public organisations and in ministries foresight exercises are conducted for many reasons and with different effects.
The review of the sociology of expectations provides various generic lessons about the viability and limits of foresight.
The discussion is organised along the three objectives of foresight as discussed in Section 2: priority-setting, networking and building visions.
As indicated below, the lessons often resonate with what foresight practitioners have discovered. The discussion is summarised in Table 3. The first generic lesson is that the formal articulation of futures takes place in situations where expectations abound
In other words, foresight necessarily occurs in a‘sea'of expectations. The ubiquitous informal expectations circulate within and between groups of developers and policy-makers,
Foresight, thus, necessarily draws from existing repertoires. Some argue that foresight studies run the risk to reinforce existing paths
and thus contribute to lock in (Jacobsson and Johnson 2000; Unruh 2000. On the other hand, foresight can be an antidote as well,
by Downloaded by University of Bucharest at 05:02 03 december 2014 778 H. van Lente Table 3. Lessons of the sociology of expectations for Foresight objectives of foresight Lessons of sociology of expectations Expectations are drawn from repertoires Expectations
are performative Expectations enhance the strategic character of S&t priority-setting The efficacy of foresight as an antidote to lock in is limited Enhanced legitimation for selected priorities Foresight exercises
and outcomes become part of innovation races Networking Stakeholder participation tend to reproduce repertoires The newly established networks will start to promote the vision Participants may press their version of the future Building visions Foresight outcomes will not Be built very original visions may have unintended consequences
Visions may become self-fulfiling generating ideas on alternatives. Könnölä, Brummer, and Salo (2007,610), for instance, argue that‘..
Since foresight necessarily draws from existing repertoiire of expectations, is will not generate many‘new'expectations,
an increasingly important task for foresight is to critically reflect on the available, circulating expectations (Könnölä, Brummer, and Salo 2007).
Foresight, it has been argued, may help to challenge established networks or even circumvent lock in conditions by engaging different stakeholders (Havas 2003).
but are performaative The claims resulting from foresight, thus, are not to be seen as descriptive statements that may
Once specific futures are articulated in foresight exercises, others may refer to these to underpin their position.
Likewise, when networks are built with foresight exercises (in which claims about the future are made) these networks will adopt the claims
This adds a reflexive and strategic dimensiio to the process of foresight, as we saw in the anticipation of the hype cycle,
where companies Downloaded by University of Bucharest at 05:02 03 december 2014 Navigating foresight in a sea of expectations 779
Foresight will thus enhance the reflexive and strategic character of technological change including self-fulfiling and self-denying dynamics.
In the case of priority-setting, foresight will reinforce innovation races: governments tend to follow the choices of other governments.
5. Conclusion Foresight exercises can be seen as formal articulations of possible futures, to be contrasted with the numerous informal articulations of futures that circulate in science and technology.
what this body of literature has to offer for foresight. This article investigated the lessons of the sociology of expectations for the various practices of foresight.
A review of foresight highlights the diversity in methods, objectives and settings(‘arenas'.'The review of the sociology of expectations discussed how expectations legitimise,
inform and coordinate efforts in research, firms and government. These overviews allowed us to draw lessons for foresight.
The condition that foresight is surrounded and nourished by informal estimates, voiced expectations, and circulating images of the future, both limits and enables the formal anticipations.
Foresight exercises will draw from the repertoire of circulating statements, as we saw in the case of technology roadmaps.
They thus tend to reproduce the circulating assumptions. In principle, this will also enhance the formal exercise,
it is seen not as adding much news. The alignment of formal and informal expectations makes foresight socially more robust,
howcan foresight raise salience while not hampering its efficacy? While specific answers should be tailor-made,
the basic step is to acknowledge the condition that foresight is embedded in ongoing anticipation and to make this condition more explicit.
in order to navigate foresight in the sea of expectations, one needs both clear sight as well as a compass.
This involves studies of technology Downloaded by University of Bucharest at 05:02 03 december 2014 780 H. van Lente assessment, foresight, intermediary organisations, politics of knowledge production and philosophy of technology.
The impact of foresight on policy-making: Insights from the FORLEARN mutual learning process, Technology analysis & Strategic management 20, no. 3: 369 87.
Evolving foresight in a small transition economy. Journal of Forecasting 22, nos. 2 3: 179 201.
Downloaded by University of Bucharest at 05:02 03 december 2014 Navigating foresight in a sea of expectations 781 Hellsten, I. 2002.
Diversity in foresight: Insights from the fostering of innovation ideas. Technological forecasting and Social Change 74, no. 5: 608 26.
Technology foresight in companies: From an indicator to a network and process perspective. Technology analysis & Strategic management 13, no. 4: 533 53.
Improving the business impact of foresight. Technology analysis & Strategic management 20, no. 3: 337 49. Salo, A a. 2001.
Incentives in technology foresight. International Journal of Technology management 21, nos. 7 8: 694 710. Schoen, A t. Könnölä, P. Warnke, R. Barré,
Tailoring foresight to field specificities. Futures 43, no. 3: 232 42. Schot, J, . and A. Rip. 1996.
http://www. tandfonline. com/loi/ctas20 Strategic foresight: matching environmental uncertainty Riccardo Vecchiato a a Department of Management, Economics and Industrial Engineering, Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy Published online:
Riccardo Vecchiato (2012) Strategic foresight: matching environmental uncertainty, Technology analysis & Strategic management, 24:8, 783-796, DOI: 10.1080/09537325.2012.715487 To link to this article:
8 september 2012,783 796 Strategic foresight: matching environmental uncertainty Riccardo Vecchiato*Department of Management, Economics and Industrial Engineering, Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy This paper explores how strategic decision-makers select
and use foresight practices and techniqque for handling environmental uncertainty. Our research is based on a multiple-case study of corporate organisations that recently faced major changes in their external environment and increasing turbulence.
and find that they entail different requirements for the design and implementation of strategic foresight actions.
strategic foresight; planning; learning; strategic management Introduction The strategic management literature (Hofer and Schendel 1978; Miles and Snow 1978;
today, the term‘strategic foresight'is used widely to designate the activities and processes that assist decision-makers in the task of charting the company's future course of action (Coates, Durance, and Godet 2010;
The main goal of strategic foresight is to select promptly drivers of change in the company's outside environment (environmental scanning:
Hambrick 1982) and to investigate their likely evolution and impact on the organisation (foresight techniques:
So far, strategic foresight has uneven success and popularity. On the one hand, scholars have shown that in the last two decades a significant number of leading firms of such diverse sectoor as energy, automotive, telecommunications,
and information technology have been regularly applying foresight techniques (Daheim and Uerz 2008; Reger 2001; Rollwagen, Hofmann, and*Email:
The wide interest in foresight seems to be confirmed by the growing number of consulting companies and networks in the field. 1 On the other hand,
scholars have failed to clearly define the value added of foresight and to provide empirical evidence of its contribution to sustain the advantage of the firm over time.
The most relevant example concerning the impact of foresight on the success of the organisation still remains the case of Shell scenarios and its anticipation of the forthcoming 1973 oil crisis (van der Heijden 1996;
In this context, some scepticism arose in the academic community regarding the reliability of foresight efforts and their soundness and appropriateness for supporting strategic decision-making (Bradley Mackay and Costanzo 2009;
The major evidence of this scepticism may be the fact that today foresight is addressed not specifically by most MBA curricula;
Scholars and practitioners in the field generally respond to such concern about the reliability of foresight by arguing that its role is not so much to predict the future,
However, scholars omitted to investigate thoroughly what kind of foresight techniques and practices should a firm adopt
how do managers design their strategic foresight approach in different environments and thus under different conditions of uncertainty?
In order to explore the relationships between environmental uncertainty, foresight, and strategic decision-making, we performed a multiple-case study of corporate organisations.
On the other hand, they started long ago to systematically engage in strategic foresight and thus progressively designed and refined their approaches to handling environmental uncertainty.
We then analyse the foresight actions of each firm and the ways these actions fitted its environment.
and shed light on their implications for foresight and strategic decision-making. Environmental uncertainty and strategic foresight Conceptualisation of environmental uncertainty Early conceptualisations of uncertainty go back to pioneering management scholars such as Knight (1921) and March and Simon (1958),
who argued that the business environment of the firm is inherently unstable and this instability creates uncertainty for rationally bounded managers who are not able to fully collect, process,
when managers lack accurate information Downloaded by University of Bucharest at 05:03 03 december 2014 Strategic foresight 785 about organisations, activities,
Strategic foresight: practices and techniques The challenge of coping with increasing uncertainty encouraged new analytical approaches to decision-making and long-range planning:
such approaches are grouped commonly under the label‘strategic foresight'(Coates, Durance, and Godet 2010; Vecchiato and Roveda 2010b.
Strategic foresight encompasses two main tasks: the first regards environmental scanning and the detection of new events and drivers of change (Mendonça and Sapio 2009.
Roadmaps, 3 scenarios, 4 and strategic options (Dixit and Pindyck 1994) are by far the most popular foresight techniques (Becker 2002;
However, strategic foresight had uneven success. Rigby (2001) found that only 21.5%of North american executives used scenario planning in 1999, approximately 50%fewer than in 1994.
Foresight practitioners and scholars generally respond to such criticism by arguing that the role of foresight
In this vein, scholars focused on methodological issues regarding how to implement a large number of foresight practices and techniques.
Extant research streams of environmental uncertainty and strategic foresight are aligned not seamlessly. The following issue in particular remains largely unexplored:
how do managers design their strategic foresight approach in different environments and thus under different conditions of uncertainty?
and appropriateness of different foresight techniques and practices for coping with such conditions of uncertainty. In this way, we try to enhance the use of foresight by practitioners
and to respond, at the same time, to the criticism of (some part of) the academic community: matching the right anticipatory approach with the specific conditions of uncertainty a firm is facing in its business environment is an essential condition
which foresight entails about the future. Methods and data The research design is based on an inductive and multiple-case study of a group of selected firms.
On the other hand, they all started long ago to systematically engage in strategic foresight: they put a lot of efforts in terms of both human
Firm Business Foresight activities started Philips Consumer electronics Early 1990s BASF Chemicals Mid-1990s Daimler Automotive Late 1970s Siemens Consumer Products,
ICT Mid-1990s Downloaded by University of Bucharest at 05:03 03 december 2014 Strategic foresight 787 The unit of analysis was twofold.
since they started their foresight efforts and in particular throughout the 2000s. On the other hand we analysed the foresight activities of each firm in relation to uncertainty and drivers of change in its business environment and the use of strategic foresight in decision-making.
Data were collected through the combination of various sources and through an iterative proceess First, we collected publicly available data on the industry
in particular, the heads of the organisational unit in charge of foresight activities. We also interviewed external consultants who were involved in the foresight process.
Finally, we interviewed a sample of leading experts from academia and industry who had extensive knowledge of each company and its industry.
Cross-case analysis and theory triangulation with different bodies of literatuur on environmental uncertainty, foresight,
Matching strategic foresight with environmental uncertainty: empirical evidence In this section, we illustrate the main findings of our research.
We grouped our sample firms into two clusters on the basis of the similarities in the kinds of drivers of change they faced and the foresight approaches they adopted:
Foresight in mature industries Environmental uncertainty and foresight approach The chemical and automotive industries throughout the last decade were typically mature and global industries where trajectories of technologies
In such a context, BASF's strategic foresight approach to investigating the evolution impact, and response options to macro drivers of change (i e. for coping with state, effect,
Strategic foresight activities at BASF started in the mid-1990s, when the company realised that the chemical industry was going through major structural changes
Subsequent foresight activities address specific regions (the EU, the USA, and Asia) and countries, by breaking down global scenarios into the firm's main sectors and business areas,
Foresight activities address major trends and forces in the political, economic, infrastructural, social, and cultural landscapes which are likely to shape the future of the transport
Foresight and decision-making Decision-makers at BASF seamlessly embedded foresight activities in the strategy formulation process. Scenarios are combined usually with the formulation and evaluation of strategic options,
(and divestment) decisions for Downloaded by University of Bucharest at 05:03 03 december 2014 Strategic foresight 789 expanding
the foresight analysis highlighted increasing operating costs due to social and political concerns, as well as the likelihood of strong pressure to reduce prices to consumers,
At business and operational levels, strategic foresight supports the definition of target features for enhancing products and services,
The outputs from foresight activities provide a wide basis of information which explores longaan medium-term changes in customers'needs and lifestyles,
The foresight process then investigated the technical and economic feasibility of the concept, which the top management decided to endorse by establishing a new brand and a subsidiary start-up.
Foresight in fast-paced industries Environmental uncertainty and foresight approach The consumer electronics and ICT industries
In such a context, strategic foresight efforts at Philips aimed essentially at detecting new trends in society, technologies,
Philips'foresight activities included as well Philips Research the group's corporate R&d unit which regularly develops technology roadmaps concerning the group main business sectors.
Foresight activities usually cover a 10-year time horizon, while emerging trend investigations are scheduled yearly to fit in with the annual strategy calendar.
As with Philips, foresight efforts at Siemens aim at identifying strong discontinuities and disruptions in markets and technologies so that they can be acted upon quickly.
Foresight activities are carried out by the Corporate Technology unit, where a specific research unit (an‘Innovation Field')has been established for each of the company business segments.
Foresight and decision-making The main goal of strategic foresight at Philips is to drive the renewal of the organisation by figuring out how to exploit the new market opportunities enabled by emerging technologies or in response to changing customer needs.
Since the late 1990s, foresight activities have played a key role in redefining the company mission, as it focused its value proposition on the‘Sense and Simplicity'concept.
At Siemens, too, foresight activities go beyond identifying emerging changes in technology and customer needs to encompass the exploitation of the new market opportunities inherent in such changes.
it is allocated to the‘Siemens Technology Accelerator'(part of the Corporate Technology Downloaded by University of Bucharest at 05:03 03 december 2014 Strategic foresight 791 division),
A model for uncertainty and strategic foresight In the prior sections, we sketched the strategic foresight approaches that emerged from our data through
our findings offer the broad outline of a conceptual framework regarding how decision-makers match strategic foresight with environmental uncertainty.
and implement very different foresight approaches. So far, scholars in strategic management have unexplored left a key issue of environmental change:
Discontinuous and continuous drivers of change entail very different and peculiar implications for strategic foresight and the tools and practices to be used for handling uncertainty.
Downloaded by University of Bucharest at 05:03 03 december 2014 Strategic foresight 793 On the other hand as they were facing discontinuous drivers of change,
A senior manager of Philips emphasised In our business foresight must address an essential prerequisite before using traditional techniques like scenarios:
foresight must help decision makers realize the implications of new technologies and customer needs for the value chain,
they might start using traditional foresight techniqque (e g. roadmaps in the case of Philips) in order to deepen the investigation of state uncertainty (e g. evolution of demand for new Internet-based services on TV),
Second, we provide empirical evidence on the ways major companies designed their strategic foresight approaches to handling uncertainty and supporting long-range planning (Cassingena Harper et al. 2008;
Boundary uncertainty entails strong implications for foresight efforts: our findings suggest that decision-makers facing discontinuous drivers of change
which is in turn a condition sine qua non for starting to profitably use traditional foresight techniques. Decision-makers facing continuous drivers of change or discontinuous drivers of which they have solved already boundary uncertainty might eventually exploit scenarios
we try to enhance the academic standing of foresight and its use by practitioners: we believe that matching the right foresight approach with the specific kind of uncertainty faced by a firm is an essential condition in order to foster and nurture the learning process about the future
which previous scholars have suggested as the main contribution of foresight to strategic decision-making (van der Hejden et al. 2002;
Tsoukas and Shepherd 2004. Data collection and data analyses were designed in order to improve the construct and internna validity of our conceptual framework.
However, much additional research must be done for improving and expanding this conceptual framework through the study of environmental uncertaiint and foresight activities in other industries and firms.‘
and recruiting the foresight skills they required among MBA and Phd graduates. 3. Roadmaps consist of representations of interconnected nodes of major changes and events in some selected fields of the external environment, such as science, technology, and markets.
Downloaded by University of Bucharest at 05:03 03 december 2014 Strategic foresight 795 Notes on contributor Riccardo Vecchiato is Assistant professor at the Department of Management, Economics and Industrial Engineering of Politecnico di Milano
His main research fields are foresight methodologies and strategic management of technology and innovation. He has presented on these themes at international conferences
and International Journal of Foresight and Innovation policy. He has been a consultant for large firms and governmental bodies in Italy and abroad in several foresight projects.
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