he was Director of S&t Foresight for the Office of the National science Advisor to the Prime minister of Canada and Leader of the Office of Technology foresight for the National research council of Canada.
Deep uncertainty characterizes many domains of decision-making in science and technology. In particular, under deep uncertainty, there is little agreement or consensus about system structure.
the Internet, science and technology databases, patent databases, newswires, and potentially also newsgroups or other online collaborative environments.
It extends and elaborates upon the procedures described by these authors for discovering new linkages of knowledge through use of a structured representation of science and technology,
Likewise, in terms of knowledge production, researchers form multi-disciplinary teams devoted to specific problems and specific contexts 12.
conforming to theories about the organization of science and technology. Without a theory of the data the technology analyst cannot distinguish between meaningful structure and possibly accidental corruption of the knowledge base.
which is shared between distributed communities of designers and researchers. This knowledge is stored in databases of science and technology.
New future-oriented technology analysis techniques, such as the approach suggested here, may contribute to the process and management of radical innovation 17,18.
The express purpose of these science and technology databases is to research specific existing technologies, and yet the biggest promise of these sources of information may be the diffuse and distributed information they contain about the current state of the knowledge of the community.
Unlike conventional, disciplinary researchers, these organizations do need not necessarily the database to gain access to individual pieces of information
but decentralized, knowledge of science and technology is something which can be tested through the use of machine learning techniques.
Previous researchers have identified a number of consequences of radical innovation for the poorly prepared firm or country:
Claim Claimant Data Scientific and technical knowledge consists of a set of interdependent claims Popper 31 Networks of knowledge can be structured readily from science
and technology databases using techniques such as hierarchical random graphs Knowledge claims are heterogenous in character Derrida 32 Networks built upon science
and is distributed therefore a characteristic of science Lakatos 34 Changes in network structure in this case are diffuse,
We suggest that innovation researchers incorporate this new concept into their theories and case studies. 6. Interpretations from the philosophy and sociology of science The hierarchical random graph is one possible model of science, technology and innovation data.
A more fundamental question is whether such a model is consistent with what is postulated about the sociology and epistemology of science.
Towards this end, this section examines features of the hierarchical random graph and relates these features to relevant work in the philosophy of science.
Seven features of the random graph model are problematic and therefore worthy of additional explanation.
The role of scientists, engineers, and innovators is to enhance the coherence of this network.
The progress of science is such that claims which bridge knowledge and increase coherence between related fields may be increasingly more difficult to formulate.
or deny selected ideas in the philosophy of science. Rather, by confronting observations with the context of discussion provided by philosophy,
The status of knowledge is a matter of prolonged and fundamental discussion in philosophy of science.
and it is the role of the scientist to absorb this knowledge according to his or her capabilities.
Semioticians such as Derrida 32 argue that a full accounting of science requires a registration of claims about both about the physical as well as social worlds.
Derrida's ideas informed Callon and others who developed actor network theory as a vehicle for research in science and technology 33.
Knowledge about science and technology may come in two forms. Explicit knowledge entails knowledge about specific claims.
the existence of the claim can be verified through recourse to knowledge bases of science and technology.
Polanyi's account of science and technology has technologists laboring at the interface of claims,
when applied to a network of science and technology information, is likely to be material as well as semiotic in character. 1147 S w. Cunningham/Technological forecasting
The alternative approach would be to expressly encode the configuration within the database of science and technology.
a hierarchical random graph, is a useful way for structuring diffuse knowledge bases of science and technology.
as well as presaging a significant reorganization of the science and technology database to better match technological progress.
of which may be monitored by means of science and technology databases. This technique (and other techniques like it) may see application in open innovation,
a conceptual basis for uncertainty management in model-based decision support, Integrated Assessment 4 (1)( 2003) 5 17.8 G. S. Altshuller, Creativity as an Exact Science
The Dynamics of Science and Research in Contemporary Societies, SAGE, London, 1994.13 B. Harrison, Industrial districts:
A Social and Behavioral Sciences Approach, Chapman & Hall, 2002.26 J. J. Garrett, AJAX: A New approach toweb Applications, 2005, Retrieved 15 may 2007, from http://www. adaptivepath. com/ideas/essays/archives/000385. php. 27 W3c (World wide web Consortium), Roadmap
Scott Cunningham received a Ph d. in Science, Technology and Innovation policy from the Science policy Research Unit.
, A. Klinke A j. Markard A m. Maurer b, A. Ruef a a Department Innovation research in Utility Sectors at The swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag), Switzerland
at the German Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation research ISI, Germany e Technology and Society Unit of The swiss Federal Institute of Materials Science and Technology (Empa
and networking in science, technology and innovation policy 6. Foresight is however much less well developed in strategic planning contexts as it often misses the link between analyzing uncertainties to assessing options
and prioritize science, technology and innovation policy measures. While the earlier approaches tended to be techno-deterministic,
/Technological forecasting & Social Change 76 (2009) 1150 1162 Acknowledgements The project Regional infrastructure foresight was funded by The swiss National science Foundation within the National research Program 54 Sustainable development of the Built Environment.
An Investigation into the Long-term challenges and Opportunities for the UK's Strategic Highway Network, Highway Agency for England, London, 2003.42 Office of Science and Technology, Intelligent Infrastructure Futures, Foresight Directorate
in transdisziplinären Projekten, GAIA 1 (2007) 41 45.56 R. Barré, S&t Foresight as a Collective Learning process In view of Strategic decision making:
Overview and Interpretative Framework, European Science and Technology observatory (ESTO), Paris, 2001.57 I. Miles, Appraisal of Alternative methods and Procedures for Producing Regional foresight, EU Kommission, Brüssel, 2002.58 R. Popper,
Eckhard Störmer is a project leader at the Social science Research Department Cirus (innovation research in utility sectors) at The swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag.
Hans Kastenholz is a senior researcher at the Technology and Society unit of The swiss Federal Institute of Materials Science and Technology (Empa.
and its multidisciplinary technology foresight team, consisting of researchers with experience on foresight, technology assessment and risk assessment studies,
Opening up a fruitful dialogue among the FTA researchers and professionals facilitates also mutual learning across the FTA and risk assessment communities.
and technology oriented forecasstin practices and called for new participatory and systemic foresight approaches 3. Also the R&d functions are moving from the basic science
INNORISK researchers also point out that risk management is not only about identifying and assessing risks and selecting risk reducing measures,
Quality Management of Safety and Risk analysis, Elsevier Science Publishers B. V.,Amsterdam, 1993, pp. 25 43.23 J. Tixier, G. Dussere, O. Salvi
, D. Gaston, Review of 62 risk analysis methodologies of industrial plants, Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, vol. 15, Elsevier Science Ltd.
She was first working as an environmental policy researcher at the University of Tampere. In 1999 she joined VTT to work in developing the management of environmental risks.
The policy sciences teach us to identify optimum policies by testing a set of prospective policies on models that simulate the real world
Besides technological development decision-makers need all-inclusive knowledge of future developments of society, economy and impacts of science and technology.
Innovation policy Science and Technology indicators Barometer Future-oriented knowledge 1. Introduction A growing number of different international comparison systems of the economic and innovation performance of nations have emerged within a decade 2
Although Finnish policy-makers, industrial community, scientists and citizens have followed international comparisons and related discussion with great interest,
In technology barometer, the indicators of knowledge society assess the gearing of the human and intellectual capital investments towards science and technology
-scientific fields in the age group 20 29, the share of people aged 25 34 with a doctor's degree in the same fields, the share of women among researchers,
the share of middle-level and high-level technology fields in the labour force, the labour force share of competence-intensive services and researchers in the total labour force.
Assessments of the younger citizens clearly point out that in the future science and technology will be followed increasingly through means of interactive,
like the idea of including interactive and mobile media skills to science education curriculum at the elementary level. 3. 3. Synthesizing discussion Each technology barometer consists of concluding discussions of certain topical issues
The selection and interpretations of these issues are made by the representatives of the TEK together with researchers from VTT.
science and technology will be followed increasingly by means of interactive, instantly updated media such as the Internet and popular TV programmes of science and technology. 4. Conclusions Despite the inevitable methodological challenges,
the technology barometer has proven to be capable of casting additional light on bottlenecks and problem areas within the national innovation environment in Finland.
and its results can be utilized as an aid and support for long-term decisions concerning science, technology, innovation and education.
which is a combination of social and economic scientific methods, calls for a high transparency of the methods used as well as transparency of all the utilized data.
Moreover, the process of developing Finnish national strategic centres for science, technology and innovation is underway in the technology fields with future importance for businesses and the society.
in Knowledge-based Economy (EC) Performance in Knowledge-based Economy (EC) Technology Achievement Index (UN) General Indicator of Science and Technology (NISTEP) Information and Communications technologies
The future fields are all crosscutting issues based on science and technology. All of them are specifically knowledge dynamic fields. 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
The process was considered to be the major approach of a German ministry in science and technology foresight.
and had strong links to the previous science and technology foresight processes on a national level 13,16, 17,28, 29.
The process started by monitoring present-day science and technology and was broadened to look into the future of the next 10 to 15 years and even further.
According to the key words, literature from the Web of Science was counted on the one hand and qualitatively analysed on the other hand 9,
these fields were selected as starting points to search for new topics in science and technology, at first at the national level, later on internationally.
Services Science In a first workshop with 110 participants in November 2007, these 14 thematic fields were discussed with respect to emerging topics
and new developments in science and technology or long-term research questions were described at these crossroads. These crosscutting areas were additional starting points for searches.
but with science and technology push topics. Therefore, the criteria to be matched incorporated some of the demand aspects
if the topics that were already found as future-relevant for German science and technology landscape are really relevant and if theymeet the criteria of the process.
but it does mean that science and technology are already receiving sufficient support, and solutions are on the way or better:
However, this is far from straightforward as foresight outcomes tend to challenge established configurations by pointing to long-term issues that reach across boundaries of scientific disciplines, industrial sectors and departments in industry, research institutes
and in science and technology with a longer-term view and codifying this knowledge in reports for BMBF contributes directly to the first two objectives of the process (objectives no. 1 and 2). It is expected that policy implementation will be facilitated by this information, by defining strategic partnerships and recommendations,
because experts in the broader sense were the persons who knew about the details in science and technology.
The current BMBF Foresight process is about science and technology it needs experts who are able to understand
and were focused on results that are within the limits of BMBF reach and responsibility (science and technology).
but stress science and technology because other topics may not be implemented directly by a BMBF. Therefore, those topics which are not directly BMBF topics are handed over to others by raising their awareness.
, Berlin 2006.3 K. Cuhls, Methoden der Technikvorausschau-eine internationale Übersicht, IRB, Stuttgart, 2008.4 Science and Technology foresight Center, Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports
, Science and Technology (MEXT), in: National Institute of Science and Technology policy (NISTEP (Ed.),Kagakugijutsu no chûchôki hatten ni kakawaru fukanteki yosoku chôsa (The 8th Science and Technology foresight Survey Future science and Technology
in Japan, Delphi Report) Report no. 97, NISTEP, Tôkyô, 2005.5 Science and Technology foresight Center, Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), in:
National Institute of Science and Technology policy (NISTEP (Ed.),Kyûsoku ni hattenshitsutsu aru kenkyû ryûiki chôsa (The 8th Science and Technology foresight Survey Study on Rapidlydevellopin Research area
) Report no. 95, NISTEP, Tôkyô, 2005.6 Science and Technology foresight Center, Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), in:
National Institute of Science and Technology policy (NISTEP (Ed.),Kagakugijutsu no chûchôki hatten ni kakawaru fukanteki yosoku chôsa (The 8th Science and Technology foresight Survey, Needs Survey
) Report no. 94, NISTEP, Tôkyô, 2005.7 O. Kuusi, E. Hiltunen, H. Linturi, Heikot tulevaisuussignaalit Delfoi tutkimus (Weak signals a Delphi study), Futura, vol. 2
new foresight on science and technology, Technology, Innovation and Policy, Series of the Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation research ISI no. 13, Physica, Heidelberg, 2002.17 Bundesministerium für Forschung und
of Science and Technology), Bonn, 1993.18 O. Da Costa, P. Warnke, Chr. Cagnin, F. Scapolo, The impact of foresight on policy-making:
learning from science and technology studies, in: C. Cagnin, M. Keenan, R. Johnston, F. Scapolo, R. Barré (Eds.
new foresight on science and technology, Technology, Innovation and Policy, Series of the Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation research ISI no. 13, Physica, Heidelberg, 2002.30 Science and Technology foresight Center, Ministry
of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), in: National Institute of Science and Technology policy (NISTEP (Ed.),Comprehensive analysis of Science and Technology Benchmarking and Foresight report no. 99, Tôkyô:
NISTEP (English short version), 2005.31 L. Georghiou, et al. The Handbook of Technology foresight, Concepts and Practice, PRIME Series on Research and Innovation policy, 2008.32 S. Kuhlmann, et al.
Improving distributed intelligence in complex innovation systems, Final Report of the Advanced Science & Technology policy Planning Network (ASTPP), Karlsruhe, 1999.
and since 2004 in the Department of Research Analysis, Research Communication and Science Coordination. Walter Ganz is director and member of the Leading Circle of the Fraunhofer Institute for Industrial Engineering (IAO) in Stuttgart, Germany.
which is based in the Government office for Science based in the Department for Innovation, Universities and Skills.
their development and use, Sub-report 2. 1b of Synthesis and Assessment Product 2. 1 by the U s. Climate change Science Program and the Subcommittee on Global Change Research, Department of energy
Many of their indications fall into the realm of behavioural science and the behavioural styles of participants,
Inclusivity is a matter of creating trust across a wide range of communities in discussions of future developments, especially in science and technology.
So far, Foresight has concentrated on the first two questions related to science and technology and has paid relatively little attention to the third.
particularly when policy makers adopt the posture of omni-competence in the face of issues that characteristically pose questions to science that cannot be answered by science
these questions characterise trans science 4. These issues are discussed briefly in Box 1 (below) and in greater depth in Loveridge and Street 3. Throughout recent decades it has been presumed that people possess an infinite‘plasticity,
It was a time of immense confidence in science and technology, and their applications to improve wealth creation
Scepticism about the role of science in policy making has not been limited to the outsiders referred to above.
Weinberg 4 expressed his concerns in this context in a discussion of trans science which he described as...
or the attempts to deal with social problems through the procedures of science hang on the answers to questions that can be asked of science
and yet which cannot be answered by science. Questions with these characteristics (see Barker and Peters 5,
and conflicting scientific opinions 6. Situations where science has nothing to offer; the subject is unknown to science
and there are no claims from experts The first three enable study by non-expert policy and decision-makers;
In field 4 the situation becomes increasingly incomprehensible to the polity in general and in many senses to scientists too.
while an expert may be better at conjecturing about increasingly uncertain future science and technology the non-expert's view about desirability will be as important.
if that is the correct term, of the directions taken by science, the element of desirability in the earlier quoted triple set of concerns Foresight needs to address.
and understanding of new science and future technologies (attempts to so inform the public have so far been limited of success) Improve the anticipation of
or soon afterwards Create policy processes amenable to current and future issues within the characteristics of trans science (Weinberg ibid.)
feed-forward and other aspects of systems behaviour Likely to exhibit complexity Likely to exhibit aspects of trans science Influenced by the dynamic balance between the forces of modernity
5. Admission of the social influence on the directions taken by science and technology from within and without the scientific and technology community 6. Greater attention to the question of desirability,
As already remarked, science and technology have been the traditional focus for Foresight: even there inclusivity has not often been an important feature.
The traditional hierarchies of science and technology have tended to dominate even where there have been specific efforts to widen participation.
Conditions for inclusivity in science and technology need to address this concern. In 9 above, there is a concern for the psychology of information overload;
The evidence for this lies in the age, occupation, gender and background of the majority of Foresight participants who have been middle-to late-middle aged, professional managers and scientists, male and university graduates.
Nano artifacts depend on the convergence of sets of sciences and technologies, elsewhere called genus sciences and technologies 23, of very different kinds for their evolution into feasible and (hopefully) desirable artifacts.
even though biotechnological artifacts too require the convergence of sets of sciences and technologies for their evolution.
Critical to public acceptance is the growth of a critical mass of opinion favourable to any particular form of nano artifact and its supporting sciences and technologies:
and briefly sets out how the metaphor relates to nano artifacts and their enabling sciences, and technologies.
The Journal of Futures studies, Strategic thinking and Policy 7 (3)( 2005) 31 47.4 A m. Weinberg, Science and trans science, Minerva 10 (1972) 209 222.5 A. Barker, B
The Art and Science of Anticipating the Future, Routledge, NY, 2009.15 H. G. Daellenbach, Systems thinking & Decision making:
A Management Science Approach, John Wiley, 2001.16 Sir G. Vickers, Appreciative behaviour, Acta Psychologica 21 (1963) 274 293.17 W. Ulrich, The design
of problem-solving systems, Management Science 23 (10)( 1977) 1099 1108.18 W. Ulrich, 1983 Critical Heuristics of Social Planning:
The Informed Student Guide to Management Science, Thomson Learning, London, 2002, p. 72.22 W. Ulrich, Systems thinking as if People Mattered:
Potential Biohazards of RECOMBINANT DNA Molecules, Science (1974) 303. Denis Loveridge is an Honorary Visiting professor and Ozcan Saritas is a Research fellow:
Received 24 november 2008 Received in revised form 15 july 2009 Accepted 17 july 2009 Potentially breakthrough science
The Technology assessment Programme was part of the Science to Industry work package and the Ethical and Societal Aspect package,
and insights into the transition from present into future. 2. 3. Endogenous futures While new (emerging science and technology introduce novelties,
At the same time, researchers (for example in the Frontiers Noe) and other actors in and around the nano-world were becoming concerned about hype and bubbles bursting,
In reaction to these concerns Dr. Würzel (a researcher on nano therapies) argues on the ZDF TV news show that successes have outweighed the fatalities:
roles and responsibilities of researchers and the issues around risk of nanoparticles. The scenario in Box 4 will be shown in more detail in Section 5. 4. 2. The effect of these scenarios in the workshop The three scenarios together covered the various positions and expectations of those actors active in the debate around RRI.
The daylong workshop was comprised of a number nanotechnology researchers, a ministry of health representative, a large chemical company, a trade union representative, a nanotechnology industry association,
researchers interested in NGO activities, and a number of technology assessment scholars. The elements and actors were recognised by the participants
the ethics of promising (by researchers and firms), the ethics of engagement (not incorporated in the scenarios
researchers and technology developers do not feel pressure and continue with their R&d unabated. This was inspired by interviews at an annual meeting of the Frontiers Noe,
where researchers were anticipating that the EU responsible development code may affect funding..The codes are particularly enabling for medical devices,
and integration, The Handbook of Science and Technology studies, 2007.2 H. te Kulve, A. Rip, Engagement Requires Investment in Pre-engagement:
Presented at the Annual Meeting of the Society for Social Study of Science (4s) in Montreal, Quebec, 2007.3 A. Rip, H. te Kulve, Constructive technology assessment and sociotechnical scenarios, in:
, The Innovation journey, Oxford university Press, Oxford, 1999.6 D. K. R. Robinson, T. Propp, Multi-path mapping as a tool for reflexive alignment in Emerging s&t, Technol.
Ecole des Mines, Project SOE 1981126,'Management tools and a Management framework for Assessing the Potential of Long-term S&t Options to Become Embedded in Society',TSER Programme of the European commission, January 2002.12 A. Rip, Introduction
in science and technology, Technol. Anal. Strateg. Manag. 18 (2006) 285 298.14 Targeted (and used) for transition policy. 4 15 Used for open-ended roadmapping by technology developers at early stages of development 6. 16 Used for exploring industrial/sectorial alignment/misalignments. 17 See Haico
but from a researchers perspective (the tension of exploration and exploitation). 33 1238 D. K. R. Robinson/Technological forecasting & Social Change 76 (2009) 1222-1239 30 A. Rip, R. Kemp, Technological change, in:
Science and Citizens, Globalization and the Challenge of Engagement, Zed Books, London, 2003.32 B. Laurent, Engaging the public in nanotechnology?
Yearbook Sociology of the Sciences, Berlin etc: Springer, 2009.36 M. Kearnes, A. Rip, The Emerging Governance landscape of Nanotechnology, in S. Gammel, A. Lösch, A. Nordmann (eds.
In the meantime, Douglas is occupied currently with a part-time Post Doctoral position at the Centre for Management Sciences, Ecoles des Mines,
science and technology and innovation policy studies 1. Introduction The setting of priorities in science and innovation policy is one of the most important rationales for implementing national foresight activities.
Research and innovation councils and programmes play a significant role in the development of science and are a central interface between politics and research.
the funding for research and innovation councils and targeted research programmes is a more dynamic instrument, suitable for interaction with national science and innovation policy.
characterised by discipline-oriented basic science in universities, to a new form (Mode 2), characterised by problem-driven, application-oriented and trans-disciplinary research taking place partly outside universities
An oft-cited definition of foresight in science and technology was formulated by Ben Martin as‘the process involved in systematically attempting to look into the longer-term future of science, technology,
the economy and society with the aim of identifying the areas of strategic research Downloaded by University of Bucharest at 05:09 03 december 2014 Foresight
cross-societal discussion of the future prospects for science and technology and with implementing the results of such discussions in priorities for public expenditures on research.
Using foresight the focus is shifted from science-internal quality terms and evaluating past performance to identifying possibilities in the future.
Second, foresight exercises usually include actors in the priority discussion other than scientists. In some cases only industry representatives are included in the process
so that priorities for investment in science and innovation activities can be set;(2) reorienting the science and innovation system;
this goal is related to priority-setting, but goes further;(3) demonstrating the vitality of the science and innovation system;(
4) bringing new actors into the strategic debate; and (5) building new networks and linkages across fields, sectoor and markets,
whereby innovation is thought to be initiated in pure science and to trickle down through applied research and industrial development, ending up in new products introduced on to the market.
As a consequence of this, there is often focus on the opinions of so-called‘elite'scientists and industrialists,
The fact that Delphi surveys often solely include point of views from scientists indicates that scientists in such surveey are expected to know about the future development of technology.
Rather, foresight is a field of practice with origins in several other more or less established academic disciplines such as evolutionary economy, strategy, technology assessment or social studies of science, futures studies.
Most foresight practice in Europe has been focussed on public policy making and especially policy making in science and technology
priority-setting and foresight are not always familiar to scientists. Large parts of the science community often associate such terms with administration, bureaucracy, political intervention in science and similar, negatively associated terms,
and not with visionary thinking and long-term action. This creates a lot of misunderstanding and even mistrust in these processes.
that of science, technology, economy and society in general. In the perspective of strategic positioning (Mintzberg, Ahlstrand,
The context of science is strategic research and emerging technologies, and it is economical and competitive (and not to better understand nature and humankind).
The context is not related to any particular understanding of science or technological development but to powers and political interests in the affected areas of science and technology;
The context for science is that research and technological development are unpredictable; in this sense it is almost a Mode 1 understanding of science and technology;
Downloaded by University of Bucharest at 05:09 03 december 2014 Foresight and strategy in national research councils and research programmes 923 Foresight and strategy focus on competencies and visions for defining future development;
thus play a central role in some cases a key role in the broader strategies and developments of science and research systems.
To manage national research programmes is a highly important part of science governance and research management in general.
Research councils and programmes often constitute a more dynamic element in science than do universities and research institutions.
and prioritisable instrument in national science systems. Also, by representing a second strand of research funding, in addition to basic funding of universities and other government laboratories, research programmes contribute to competition within the research system. 3. 2. About the study
The 15 members of the Technical research Council were researchers, primarily from universities. The council was located in the Danish research Agency under the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation,
as are the other parts of the research advisory system. The Danish advisory and funding system for research was subjected to a large reform in January 2004.
However, in the first phase a number of Danish researchers in science and technology, who were not members of the council,
They were hand-picked by the council as experienced, visionary researchers, who were also able to articulate broader, cross-disciplinary thoughts about the developmmen of research in their field.
and discussed the different areas of research in science and technology, building on, among other things, the vision papers.
Therefore, the strategic areas can to some extent be seen as representing the main areas of research in science and technology,
brief passages of text and boxes containing short examples of the use of science and technology research and quotes from well-known and highleeve industry representatives.
with the aim of inspiring them to spend more on science and technology. Whereas the earlier plans focused on‘internal'prioritisation and strategic action within the research council
and on the different sub-areas of research, the plan for 2003 2007 emphasised the difference that science
A third funding source for energy research, a New energy and Environment Research programme, was established also in the period through the Strategic research Council, under the auspices of the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation.
and to respond to pressure for more collaboration between science and industry. For the Danish energy research programme the rationale was to set priorities for Danish energy research and innovation in the light of Danish energy policy.
and information functions) Energy Authority System operators (PSO actors) Consultants Other actors involved in the process Scientists Communication consultants Ministry of Science
Technollog and Innovation Partly the Confederation of Danish Industries Advisory Council for Energy Research Energy production companies Energy-technology companies Scientists Interest groupings/NGOS Target groups
Upward Government minister, parliamentary politicians Downward Programme Management system operators (PSO actors) Energy production companies Energy-technology companies Scientists Approaches Key scope Science
and strategy in national research councils and research programmes 929 Although there is a rich and growing application-oriented literature on foresight in science
and whether it is possible to make strategies in science at all, and on the merits of the Mode 1 and Mode 2 types of research.
technology and not science-discipline-oriented The strategy of positions of strength: underpinning priorities related to scientific strengths rather than future societal or industrial potentials The strategy of developing new production and consumption systems:
research councils and national research programmes are a dynamic part of national science systems. If a national science system is perceived as an important element of the overall national innovation system then priority-setting processes of research councils
and research programmes can be of legitimate strategic interest to governments. Our analysis shows that research councils and research programmes do carry out strategy processes
and business opportunities and of broader societal needs and improved the discussion on science possibilities to contribute to these.
In any case it is a long-term venture to improve academia's and the science communities'understanding of foresight and of strategy in general.
Acknowledgements The work behind this article received funding from the Danish Social science Research council through the project,‘Strategies and identity of science a study of strategy processes in national research programmes'.
His main areas of research are technology foresight, strategy in science and innovation, technological innovation, the interaction between industry and science,
Mads Borup is a senior scientist at the Innovation systems and Foresight section at the Technical University of Denmark's Department for Management Engineering.
The dynamics of science and research in contemporary societies. London: Sage. Grant, R. M. 1991.
The science on muddling through. Public Administrative Review 19:79 88. Lundvall, B.-Å..1992. National systems of innovation.
Foresight in science and technology. Technology analysis & Strategic management 7, no. 2: 139 68. Martino, J. P. 1983.
Science policy. Setting the agenda for research. In Proceedings from MUSCIPOLI Workshop One. Aarhus: Danish Institute for Studies in Research and Research policy.
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