Science and Public policy February 2010 0302-3427/10/010019-12 US$12. 00 Beech tree Publishing 2010 19 Science and Public policy, 37 (1 february 2010, pages
Adaptive foresight in the creative content industries Science and Public policy February 2010 20 with the creative environment in which content activiitie unfold that make the creative content sector a fertile ground for radical innovations or disruptions
He has worked for many years as a scientist and policy advisor on research, technology and innovation policy, both at national and European level.
Adaptive foresight in the creative content industries Science and Public policy February 2010 21 elements and showing how the implementation of those elements in combination enables us to disentanngl the complexity of the disruptive forces influenccin a sector
adapted from Wiesand and Söndermann (2005) Adaptive foresight in the creative content industries Science and Public policy February 2010 22 a mass audience.
experts) Workshop (stakeholders) Workshop (restricted, client) Impact assessment Figure 2. Overview of methodology building blocks Adaptive foresight in the creative content industries Science and Public policy February 2010
and building trust and awareness are part Adaptive foresight in the creative content industries Science and Public policy February 2010 24 of the equation.
Adaptive foresight in the creative content industries Science and Public policy February 2010 25 and related variants, uncertain issues, potential disrupttion and the likelihood of possible identified trends/issues.
No consensus could be reached for the theses printed in italics Adaptive foresight in the creative content industries Science
get a life Adaptive foresight in the creative content industries Science and Public policy February 2010 27 promises associated with user created content,
Adaptive foresight in the creative content industries Science and Public policy February 2010 28 Step 5: Policy analysis Our adaptive foresight on the creative content industrrie was concluded with a policy analysis,
2008) Adaptive foresight in the creative content industries Science and Public policy February 2010 29 mediating between skills and demand for skills.
Adaptive foresight in the creative content industries Science and Public policy February 2010 30 With regard to the impact assessment aspect of the methodology
Science and Public policy February 2010 0302-3427/10/010031-10 US$12. 00 Beech tree Publishing 2010 31 Science and Public policy, 37 (1 february 2010, pages
The study was performed by a team of researchers in Canada in the period 2005 2007.
Critical success factors for government-led foresight Science and Public policy February 2010 32 Nurture direct links to senior policy-makers.
and representatives interviewed incluuded Forfas in Ireland, the National Institute for S&t policy (NISTEP) in Japan, the Asia-pacific Economic cooperation (APEC) Center for Technoloog Foresight in Thailand, Finnsight 2015 (encompasssin a mix of Nokia
or been an advisor to collaborative foresight projects in several emergiin science and technology (S&t) domains such as:
Critical success factors for government-led foresight Science and Public policy February 2010 33 evaluation of future-oriented technology analysis (FTA) should be based upon an assessment of foresiigh quality in terms of the conjectures produced,
and members of the European community have used to guide their foresight design Quality of products Produce future-oriented materials for the system to use Development of reference materials for policy-makers and other innovation actors More informed science,
>last accessed 3 february 2010 Critical success factors for government-led foresight Science and Public policy February 2010 34 been a serious attempt to understand its effects in aggregate.
In particular, foresight has not been evaluated as an instrument of science and innovation policy. Thus the real effect of foresight on priorities may be difficult to determine.
and practical implementation Involvement of political actors in the process Critical success factors for government-led foresight Science and Public policy February 2010 35 asked what they thought were the best contemporary foresight organizations,
S&t focus? What, in your opinion, are some of the most successsfu assessments of recent foresight exercises?
synchronization with the business agenda of the organization Critical success factors for government-led foresight Science and Public policy February 2010 36 Ireland, Japan, Finland and the UK;
and implementation of technology policy Understand the best methods and use of foresight Critical success factors for government-led foresight Science and Public policy February 2010 37 Results:
The reverse appears to be happening in Canada, where the Office of the National science Advisor,
In Ireland, Forfas1 sees itself as the national policy advisory board for enterprise, trade, science, technollog and innovation.
In Japan, S&t foresight activities feature a recurriin national iterative Delphi technology poll, and also include a quarterly international journal.
These are managed by the NISTEP within the Ministry of Education, Science, Technology Sports and Culture (MEXT.
This center is hosted by Thailand's National science & Technology development Agency (NSTDA. 2 Finland has a mix of agencies
In Finland, the Parliamenntar Committee on the Future is supported by a national fund for R&d (SITRA-government investtment augmented by a significant Nokia share sale in the 1990s) as well as by government S&t focused agencies such as the TEKES, VTT
The UK seems to have developed this capacity the most where the science advisor has repeatedly been able to engaag key ministries as joint sponsors and receptoor for the results.
the foresiigh capacity and stakeholder organizations need Critical success factors for government-led foresight Science and Public policy February 2010 38 to be linked with
As present (early 2010) there are some encouraging signs of a revival of interest by the Canadian government in a modest S&t foresight initiative so,
the authors'assessment may have underestimated the longer term impacts of the activity of the nascent Office of the National science Advisor (ONSA),
nevertheless some appreciation for the contributions that foresight can make to general S&t preparedness. Based on the studies that were done,
Canada's foresight progrram based in the National science Advisor's (NSA) Office was disbanded in March 2008
Critical success factors for government-led foresight Science and Public policy February 2010 39 Compared to most of the other nations represennte in our study,
to the point in 2006 2007 where the only substantive client was the NSA and the science community,
and the program as initially formulated did not survive Critical success factors for government-led foresight Science
Science and Public policy February 2010 0302-3427/10/010041-10 US$12. 00 Beech tree Publishing 2010 41 Science and Public policy, 37 (1 february 2010, pages
B Nares Damrongchai is at the APEC Center for Technology foresight, National science Technology and Innovation policy Office, 73/1 Rama 6 Road, Rajdhevee, Bangkok 10400, Thailaand Email:
He is now at the Government Information technology Services, National science and Technology development Agency, 17th Floor, Bangkok Thai Tower Building, 108 Rangnam Rd, Phayatthai Ratchatewi, Bangkok 10400, Thailand;
Chatri Sripaipan is at the Natioona Science and Technology development Agency, 73/1 Rama 6 Road, Rajdhevee, Bangkok 10400, Thailand;
Biosecurity and emerging infectious diseases in Asia-pacific Science and Public policy February 2010 42 new diseases such as SARS and bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) with variants such as H5n1;
In the US the term‘converging technologies'was used first at a 2001 workshop organized by the US National science Foundation and the US Departmeen of Commerce entitled‘Converging Technologiie for Improving Human Performance'.
He is currently the executive director of the APEC Center for Technology foresight and the director of Policy Research and Management at the National science Technology and Innovation policy Office, Bangkok,
and the US for a number of years followed by administration of industrria research and of government science and technology (S&t) in Australia.
and has held academic posts in Canberra and Melbourne in the S&t policy area since then. A major activity has been his association with the APEC Center for Technology foresight since its inception in 1998.
his interest diversified into industrial policy and S&t policy. He was the first director of Chula Unisearch, a business-oriented commerciallizatio unit of Chulalongkorn University and the direccto of the S&t development Program at Thailand Development Research institute.
In 1997, he joined the Natioona Science and Technology development Agency (NSTDA) of Thailand as co-director of the APEC Center for Technology foresight,
and acting director of the Science, Technology and Innovation policy Research Division and retired as the vice-president for policy.
He is currently a seniio advisor to the president of NSTDA. Converging technologies are enabling technologies and knowledge systems that enable each other in pursuit of a common goal Biosecurity
and emerging infectious diseases in Asia-pacific Science and Public policy February 2010 43 The concept has been extended in the European union's Seventh Framework Program to the possibiliitie at the interface of micro nano systems and the living world.
Phucharoenchanachai (2005) Biosecurity and emerging infectious diseases in Asia-pacific Science and Public policy February 2010 44 In Phase II, the objective was to determine directiion for future R&d
emerging infectious diseases in Asia-pacific Science and Public policy February 2010 45 possibly hinder the progress of technology developmment
scientists revealed that the disease was now under control and a vaccine was widely available to prevent its spread.
The model Was developed in Roadmapping I Developed in Roadmapping II Figure 3. Structure of technology roadmaps Biosecurity and emerging infectious diseases in Asia-pacific Science and Public policy February 2010 46 proposed at the workshop
and emerging infectious diseases in Asia-pacific Science and Public policy February 2010 47 find more technology applications. The additional technology applications identified were:
with potential involvemeen of the APEC Center for Technology Foresiigh and its partnering scientists. It is hoped that eventually the outcome of this project will assist developing APEC member economies
to combating EIDS Biosecurity and emerging infectious diseases in Asia-pacific Science and Public policy February 2010 48 Table 3. Roadmap for development of EID diagnostics 2007 2012 2013 2017
multi-agent diagnostic devices linked to automated data collection and analysis Biosecurity and emerging infectious diseases in Asia-pacific Science and Public policy February 2010 49 APEC diagnosis center,
and researchers to study or analyze local samples collaboratively. It was stressed in the meetings/workshops of the project that
and emerging infectious diseases in Asia-pacific Science and Public policy February 2010 50 identification of‘technology roadmaps'that are to be applied to a wider geographical area and more diverse level of technology capacity and socioeconommi development.
The implication of this project is that it has creatte a new network of knowledgeable and concerned scientists and technologists in the field of biosecurity in the Asia-pacific region.
This project is a contribution to the better understanndin of the provision of accelerated technologicca responses to combating EID and biosecurity in the APEC region and of the role of S&t in providiin those responses through the concept of convergiin technologies.
This project was funded by the Asia-pacific Economic Cooperaatio (APEC) and the National science and Technology Developmmen Agency Ministry of Science and Technology, Royal Thai government.
Paper presented at the 29th Meeting of APEC Industrial Science & Technology Working group (ISTWG), Singapore.
National science Foundation. Tegart, G and R Johnston 2004. Some advances in the practice of foresight.
Science and Public policy February 2010 0302-3427/10/010051-11 US$12. 00 Beech tree Publishing 2010 51 Science and Public policy, 37 (1 february 2010, pages
T Katrien De Moor (corresponding author), Katrien Berte and Lieven De Marez are at MICT-IBBT, Department of Communicattio Sciences, University of Ghent, Korte Meer
User involvement in future technology analysis Science and Public policy February 2010 52 Indeed, although‘the consumer'has always been important,
A common criticism Katrien De Moor holds an MSC in communication sciences from Ghent University, Belgium.
Currently, she works as a researcher at MICT (Research group for Media and Informattio and Communications technologies (ICT)( website<www. mict. be affiliated
Katrien Berte studied communication sciences at Ghent University, Belgium. After graduating in 2001, she worked for a commercial market research agency.
He started his career as research assistant at the Department of Communication Sciences, Ghent University and has a Phd in communication sciences.
The main contribution of this work involves the development of a‘segmentation forecastting tool for prior-to-launch prediction of adoption potentiial and the development of a blueprint for better introduction strategies for ICT innovations in today's volatile market environment.
He is currently the research director of MICT-IBBT. He also teaches innovation research and new communication technologies at Ghent University.
User involvement in future technology analysis Science and Public policy February 2010 53 of the diffusion theory has to do with its proinnovvatio bias and the assumed linearity of the innovaatio and adoption process.
and at a more latent level that are quite difficult to grasp User involvement in future technology analysis Science and Public policy February 2010 54 narrow and technology-centric scope of many projects.
i-City's User involvement in future technology analysis Science and Public policy February 2010 55 large-scale living lab was the main research location.
This invenntor was used as background information to familiiariz the researchers with the possibilities of mobile technologies.
evaluation Figure 1. Schematic overview of the three research phases User involvement in future technology analysis Science and Public policy February 2010 56 activities and finds it difficult to identify with the life
from home to work Avoid traffic jams Buy petrol Take the children to school Travel abroad Book airline tickets Leisure travel Go on holiday User involvement in future technology analysis Science
User involvement in future technology analysis Science and Public policy February 2010 58 disregarded, this choice illustrates that decisions are made sometimes at the expense of the user-centred rationale.
54/5 Tourist information (Tourist cluster) 3. 87/5 Mobile help for studies (and Work study cluster) 3, 43/5 User involvement in future technology analysis Science and Public policy February
Q2, Q5 and Q6 User involvement in future technology analysis Science and Public policy February 2010 60 Conclusion In this paper, we have focused on the shift from traditiiona technology push to more user-oriented and user
Journal of the Academy of Marketiin Sciences, 30 (3), 250 261. Ballon, P, J Pierson and S Delaere 2007.
User involvement in future technology analysis Science and Public policy February 2010 61 Latour B 1993. We Have Never Been Modern.
a source of novel product conceppts Management Science, 32 (7), 791 805. Von Hippel, E 2005.
Science and Public policy February 2010 0302-3427/10/010063-16 US$12. 00 Beech tree Publishing 2010 63 Science and Public policy, 37 (1 february 2010, pages
Impact of technology policy on innovation by firms Science and Public policy February 2010 64 avoids the functional form restrictions implicit in running a regression of some type.
Before this appointment she was a researcher at the KOF Swiss Economic Institute at the ETH Zurich and responsible for the KOF Enterprise Panel.
Impact of technology policy on innovation by firms Science and Public policy February 2010 65 consensus not only among political actors but also among organizations representing business interests.
To the best of our knowledge, it is unique in Europe as a main promotional policy Impact of technology policy on innovation by firms Science and Public policy February 2010 66 either matching approaches (as in this paper) or selecctio
+for firms with less than 200 employees+for firms adopting CIMT for first time Lach (2002), Israel R&d grants from Office of Chief Scientist at Ministry of Industry and Trade (1990 1995) 325 Difference
+-positive (negative) and statistically significant effect at 10%test level Impact of technology policy on innovation by firms Science and Public policy February 2010 67 find a positive policy effect but in some cases
%Impact of technology policy on innovation by firms Science and Public policy February 2010 68 significantly lower than the respective share of projeect of these scientific fields.
material sciences are represented better among firms (about 24%)than among projects (about 12%.%The subsidized firms are characterized further by the industry affiliation and the number of employees in full-time equivalents (firm size.
Material sciences 56 8. 8 13,992, 873 11.6 249,873 Microelectronics 48 7. 6 12,810, 767 10.6 266,891 Nanotechnology 36 5
Biology 7 3. 5 Electrical machinery/electronics 12 6. 0 Information technology 21 10.6 Machinery, construction of apparatus 23 11.6 Material sciences
CTI database, authors'calculations Impact of technology policy on innovation by firms Science and Public policy February 2010 69 firms which are subsidized not out
G g a-=0 N a Impact of technology policy on innovation by firms Science and Public policy February 2010 70 (6) where and is the kernel7 at the point In a fifth step,
5%test level Impact of technology policy on innovation by firms Science and Public policy February 2010 71 innovation performance than non-subsidized firms (at the 5%test level.
5%test level Impact of technology policy on innovation by firms Science and Public policy February 2010 72‘low-subsidy'firms from that of the respective groups of non-subsidized firms.
Impact of technology policy on innovation by firms Science and Public policy February 2010 73 Appendix Table A1.
Biology 13 7 53.8 Electrical machinery/electronics 18 12 66.7 Information technology 38 20 52.6 Machinery 70 46 65.7 Material sciences
Italian (continued) Impact of technology policy on innovation by firms Science and Public policy February 2010 74appendix (continued) Table A3.
*See footnotes to Table A3 for key (continued) Impact of technology policy on innovation by firms Science and Public policy February 2010 75 Appendix (continued) Table A5.
*See footnotes to Table A3 for key (continued) Impact of technology policy on innovation by firms Science and Public policy February 2010 76 Appendix (continued) Table A7.
*See footnotes to Table A3 for key (continued) Impact of technology policy on innovation by firms Science
See also Science and Public policy (34 (10), 679 752) dedicaate to‘New frontiers in evaluation'.'Finally, see OECD (2006a) for an analysis more from the point of view of the policy-maker;
*See footnotes to Table A3 for key Impact of technology policy on innovation by firms Science
Science and Public policy, 34 (10), 681 690. Garcia-Quevado, G 2004. Do public subsidies complement businees R&d?
Science and Public policy, 35 (4), 277 288. Hall, B and J Van Reenen 2000. How effective are fiscal incentiive for R&d?
Science and Public Policcy 33 (3), 205 216. Nelson, R R 1959. The simple economics of basic scientific reseaarch Journal of Political economy, 67 (3), 297 306.
Science, Technology and Industry Board Innovatiio and Performance in the Global economy. Paris: OECD. Pointner, W and C Rammer 2005.
Science and Public policy, 28 (4), 247 258. Polt, W and G Streicher 2005. Trying to capture additionality in Framework programme 5:
Science and Public policy, 32 (5), 367 373. Rosenbaum, B R and D B Rubin 1983.
, University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia 3fabiana Scapolo, European commission Joint research Centre, Science Advice to Policy Unit, Brussels, Belgium*Corresponding author.
so that is what we will Science and Public policy 39 (2012) pp. 135 139 doi: 10.1093/scipol/scs026 The Author 2012.
Cutler, Marks, Meylan, Smith and Koivisto take the view that science will play a key role in society's response to emergent global grand challenges such as resource scarcity and global environmental change.
Science itself will also be a source of new challenges but also opportunities through its contribution to technologgica change in areas such as:
The agenda-setting, coordinnatio and conduct of science, and the ways in which scientific knowledge is diffused
Keenan et al. report on the application of fta by the International council for science when consideerin its most appropriate role in this new situation.
The scenarios that have been developed provide important insights into organisational options for international science and the roles that science, including the social
and human sciences, could play in addressing future global grand challenges. Ahlqvist Valovirta and Loikkanen describe the developmmen of a new policy instrument, innovation policy roadmapping,
This paper discusses this decision-making environment and a relevant Brazilian Science and Public policy 39 (2012) pp. 245 257 doi:
and is supervised by the Brazilian Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation. Its inception was part of government efforts to promote science, technology and innovation (ST&I) develoopmen in Brazil in order to advance economic growth, competitiveness and well-being.
Its scope covers three integrated themes: strategic foresight exercises (future studies; strategic evaluation of large programs and projects;
and are also being questioned by those beyond the strict sphere of science and technology (S&t).
demands may be associated with innovation, competitiveness, long-term government planning, subsidies to S&t public policies, and the future of complex themes, such as climate change, demography, biodiversity, bioethanol, energy efficiency etc.
planning for small and very large events such as the last three national S&t conferences organized by the CGEE
A critical factor for success is that scientists understand the behavior of government officers and representatives of the private sector,
we now present an organizational foresight exercise developed for FINEP, the main federal S&t funding agency in Brazil,
FINEP is one the main agencies under the Ministry of Science, Technology, and Innovation (MCTI.
and trends in intellecctua property rights (IPR) Mapping S&t national capacity according to data available in CNPQ/Lattes databases and Innovation Portal Expert panels to debate the following themes:
and disseminnatio of results Nanotechnology Mapping current situation and future trends in S&t in Brazil and in a number of selected nations,
in order to guide national investments in nanosciences and nanotechnologies Trends in S&t development in a selected group of countries;
and international cooperation) S&t monitoring using text mining techniques applied to relevant international databases Delphi, involving around 1,
S&t funding, nonreimbuursabl grants and loans for firms. FINEP's strategic management plan was developed in 17 months, in an intense and challenging process of looking into the future of the agency and its role in the national ST&I system.
the Journal of Future Studies, 1: 5 9. Irwin, A. 2004)‘ Expertise and experience in the governance of science:
*and Sylvia Schwaag Serger1 1lund University research Policy Institute, P o box 117, SE-221 00 Lund, Sweden, 2institute of Science, Technology and Society, School of Humanities
China, science policy, research, innovation. 1. Introduction and problem definition In recent years, there has been a rapidly growing interest in the development of science, technology and innovation (STI) in the People's republic of china.
So far, scholarly interest has focused on the overall evolution and design of China's science and technology (S&t system (Ke 2004;
and priorities set in Chinese S&t policy (see, however, the primarily quantitative policy analysis in Liu et al. 2011)).
In an article in People's Daily in August 2010, prominent academmic complained that the current S&t system is overfunnde but institutionally weak (Zhao et al. 2010.
Science and Public policy 39 (2012) pp. 258 270 doi: 10.1093/scipol/scs006 Advance Access published on 17 february 2012 The Author 2012.
journals. permissions@oup. com Similarly, in an editorial in Science, Shi and Rao (2010) argue that bureaucrats misuse
Such criticisms highlight a fundamental debate in Chinese science policy-making as to how research funding should be allocated
Critics of Chinese science policy-making portray it as strong on formulating high-level objectives but weak on building long-term capacity from below,
to capture the dynamics of Chinese science policy-making, which are characterized by quickly, if somewhat unevenly, developiin elements of both political planning and institutional empowerment, often under the political banner of‘controlled modernization'.
Instead, China seems to be forging its own way with an evolving mixture of planning, decentralization and deliberation. 1. 1 Trends in setting priorities Explicit models for science policy priority-setting devellope late and with great tensions.
In his classic paper Weinberg (1963) formulated what later became a dominant mechanism for priority-setting in science policy in Western countries:
Science policy-making has since been enmeshed with policies in other areas, reducing the professional autonomy of the scientific community in setting priorities (Ziman 1994).
In the last decades, the rise of new public management within state administration has had also a major impact on science policy-making,
Today's mechanism for priority-setting in these countries is therefore a hybrid, sometimes drawing upon scientific expertise not only in low-level decision-making but also in the framing of societal challenges underlying science policy priorities (Pielke 2007),
which science can be put to productive use and where broader societal considerations inform priority-setting (Laredo and Mustar 2001;
The second is related to institutiionand capacity-building and governance of the S&t system, and in particular floor funding of academic institutiions Ergas'work
and thus presuppose relatively well-developed and mature S&t institutions, basic capacities and governance mechanisms.
However, Emerging s&t systems, such as China's, combine rapid advances in S&t resources with significant Research priority setting in China. 259 systemic immaturities regarding for example funding allocattio mechanisms,
How is the funding model related to current trends of‘coordinated decentralization'in science policy? 2. China's S&t system and policy:
An overview 2. 1 A short history While China has a long history of scientific and technologgica discovery,
in modern times it has lagged behind Western countries in S&t (Ke 2004). Beginning with the founding of People's republic of china in 1949, a Socialist centralized S&t system was built in the 1950s by adding the Soviet model of centralized planning onto the S&t system that had emerged in the Republic of china (e g.
Wang 1993; Simon and Goldman 1989. Five S&t‘forces'or actors were identified: the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), the public research institutes affiliated to the ministries,
the public research institutes affiliated to the provincial governments, the universities and the national defense research institutes.
These actors operated on the basis of a clear division of labor with little interaction between them.
During the‘pre-reform period',the development of the S&t forces was interrupted frequently by political movements, especially during the Cultural Revolution (1966 76.
Overall, the pre-reform S&t system in China was characterized by a disconnection between research and commercialization on the one hand,
and with it its S&t policy, changed radically (Gu and Lundvall 2006; Simon and Goldman 1989),
and the firm-centered phase (OECD 2008)( see Fig. 1). The 1978 National science Conference coincided with the launch of the economic reform
and open-door policy and was watershed an important event for S&t in China. At the opening ceremony, then-Premier Deng xiaoping Figure 1. Phases in Chinese S&t policy making.
Source: OECD (2008: 72). 260. M. Benner et al. declared that S&t were‘the productive force'rather than an ideological category,
thus reinstating scientists and academmic as‘respectable'members of society after they had been reviled and attacked during the Cultural Revolution and laying the foundation for a politically favorable environmmen for S&t.
As China started the transition from a planned economy to a market economy, this entailed a reconstruction of the S&t institutes as well as the universities and, in particular,
a modest connection between research and commercialization (for analyses of the transition see Feigenbaum 2003;
Saich 1989; Suttmeier 1980. The next phase, of structural reforms, began in the mid-1980s, when the China Communist party Central Committee (CCPCC) issued policy documents outlining three major systems reforms:
of the economic system in 1984, of the S&t system in 1985, and of the education system in 1985.
pushing scientists to seek funding from the market while launching the National Natural science Foundation of China (NSFC) and national S&t programs for researchers to apply to on a competitive base.
The 1985 reform has been described as:..‘highly systemic'in the sense that the focus was on reshaping the division of labor and the interaction between producers and users of knowledge and innovation.
A decision on accelerating the progress of S&t was launched in 1995, proposing a national strategy entitled‘strategy of revitalizing the nation through science and education'(kejiao xingguo).
The decision on‘acceleration of progress in S&t'marked a further step towards orienting S&t towards China's social and economic needs
and towards linking STI efforts more closely with market forces and the private sector (US Embassy Beijing 1996).
President Jiang Zemin also emphasized the importance of indigenous S&t capability. From the beginning of the reform period, S&t constituted one of the‘four modernizations'identified by Deng xiaoping (and earlier by Zhou Enlai) as pillars of the reform,
the other three being agriculture, industry and national defense. Throughout the era, Chinese leaders have pointed to science as a key to economic progress and competitiveness, most recently through the concept of‘scientific development'and the launching of the indigennou innovation strategy (e g.
Wen 2008. 2. 2 Governance of the S&t system An important element characterizing the governance of China's S&t system throughout the phases identified before is the strong involvement of China's top leaders in S&t decision-making.
This is exemplified by the Leading Group on Science, Technology and Education of the State Council, created in 1998,
and currently chaired by Prime minister Wen Jiabao. The Ministry of S&t (MOST) plays a key role both through its responsibility for formulating S&t policy for example in the Medium and Long-term Plan and in the five-year plans for S&t development and as a key dispenser of research funds (Springut et al. 2011.
In formulating policy, MOST has a number of research institutes at its disposal, such as the Chinese Academy of S&t for Development (CASTED) but also the Institute for Policy Management at the CAS and academics at selected universities, such as Tsinghua.
The Development Research center under the State Council (DRC), a think tank, also contributes to setting overall policy directions through its analyses.
The National Development Reform Commission (NDRC) and the Ministry of Finance influennc S&t policy-making through their responsibilities for overall economic policy and the budget, respectively.
Finally, provincial governments and S&t offices play an increasingly important role in setting priorities for industrria development
The third level concerns the design of the national S&t programs while the fourth stratum is at the level of research organizattion (i e. the CAS) and funding agencies (i e. the NSFC.
and medium-and long-term plans for S&t (MLP). Thus China has continued on the Soviet model of using plans (jihua,
or guihua) to drive the development of S&t, as well as economic and societal development. The latest MLP was presented in February 2006
So-called mega-engineering and mega-science projects are aimed at‘leapfrogging'in key areas, while key technology programs play the role of supporting economic development,
and implemented by national S&t programs. China has launched various national S&t programs (jihua. 1 The most salient programs in recent history are the National Key technologies R&d Program established in 1984,
the State High-tech R&d Program (also known as the 863 Program), initiated in 1986 and the State Basic R&d Program (also known as the 973 Program), established in 1997.
and national S&t programs are not independent of each other. Rather they are connected, with the former guiding and providing an overarching framework for the latter (in their five-year plans).
The MOST RECENTLY proposed that the structure of national S&t programs be changed from the‘3+2'(three core programs:
Construction of S&t Infrastructures and Construction of the S&t Industrialization Environment) 3 to‘basic+mega',reflecting the greater emphasis placed on basic research and infrastructure,
S&t achievements State Key and New Product Program 1988 Support new high-tech products for key industries 9th Five-year Plan National Program
Technology development Project for Research institutes 1999 Support central government-related technology development research institutes Action Plan for Thriving Trade by Science and Technology 2000 Facilitate exports of high-tech products
with high value-added and foster international competitiveness 10th Five-Year Plan Agriculture S&t Transfer Fund 2001 Foster development of S&t achievements in agriculture
and diffusiio of agricultural technologies 11th Five-Year Plan Mega-science Program 2006 Promote four top scientific areas Mega-engineering Projects 2006 Promote technology
national goals Date of creation unknown International S&t Cooperation Plan 2001? Use global S&t resources to develop critical technologies;
provide a platform for international cooperation State Engineering Technology research Centers Provide technologies and equipment to firms Soft Science Research program Provide reliable scientific advice to national and local policy-makers Source:
OECD (2008) and MOST website (see Note 2). 262. M. Benner et al. 3. Setting priorities:
Key data for expendditur by Central Government on the main S&t programs is shown in Table 3. Fig. 2 classifies China's main S&t programs,
based on data on national S&t programs provided in the China Statistical Yearbook on Science and Technology (2009).
or thematic centers of excellence can be juxtaposed with programs aimed at raising the general level of S&t throughout the country.
Table 2. Structure of national S&t programs Research priority setting in China. 263 By classifying national S&t programs into these categories,
we reveal a strong emphasis of China's S&t programs on mission and academic excellence,
Figure 2. Weighting of funding in Chinese science policy. Source: 2009 China Statistical Yearbook on Science and Technology Data from 2008.
Note: In order to simplify, some programs have been grouped into one‘bubble'.'Thus, the‘Innofund+programs'includes Innofund, Spark, Torch, Agricultural S&t Transfer Fund, National Engineering research Centers (data from 2007) and the New National Products Program.
The‘National S&t Infrastructure+Programs'include the National S&t Infrastructure Program, the S&t Basic Work Program, the Special Technology development Project for Research institutions and the NSFC Fund for Less Developed Regions.
The Mega-engineering Projects is missing due to lack of data. Table 3. Allocations for S&t by Central Government in main S&t programs (in million RMB) Item 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
NSFC 1598 1968 2049 2250 2701 3620 4331 5358 National Basic research Program (973 Program) 589 686 800 897 983 1354
1614 1624 3000 5441 5066 National science and Technology Infrastructure Program 100 593 573 754 686 24 S&t Basic Work 200 200
102 150 200 Torch Program 70 70 70 70 70 108 139 152 Agricultural S&t Transfer Fund 400 200 200
MOST (2009)( see Note 2) and China Statistical Yearbook on Science and Technology (2009).**Data for 863 Program are from MOST (2009)( see Note 2),
China Science and Technology indicators (2008) and from<http://www. sts. org. cn>accessed 20 may 2011.264.
further confirming that government S&t funding is concentrated strongly on mission-based research. 3. 2 Mission Traditionally,
the S&t programs of the People's republic of china have had a clear, and sometimes overwhelming, mission orientation, often identifying specific areas where radical innovations are sought.
its major goal is to address pressing S&t issues for national economic and social development. 5 Finally,
which was inspired strongly by the US National science Foundation. The NSFC was a product of the official reform of the S&t system
which started in 1985. It is a public institution directly under the State Council and its financial resources come mainly from allocations by the Central Government,
The funding of the 973 Program by S&t fields is shown in Table 4. The most salient example is the 973 Projects where the average funding for one project is 30 million RMB, about 100 times larger
and in the megasciienc projects which were launched as a new national S&t program after the MLP.
thus representing an ambition to square‘national needs'with‘science dynamics'.'Hence, Table 4. Allocation for S&t by Central Government in S&t programs by fields:
the Case 973 Program (in million RMB) Item 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Total 589 686 800 897 983
1354 1648 1900 Agriculture science 100 86 84 105 109 111 145 170 Energy science 77 68 90 84 95
90 156 168 Information science 79 81 105 85 114 80 159 153 Environment science 138 108 150 105 146 125
153 182 Human and health science 89 114 131 167 209 150 194 261 Materials science 88 99 111 106 119
117 162 189 Synthesis science 18 130 110 230 191 170 161 175 Forefront of major science 136 161 207 National
Special Science Research program 375 353 396 Others 9 15 Source: All data are from National Bureau of Statistics,
MOST (see Note 2) and China Statistical Yearbook on Science and Technology (2009). Research priority setting in China. 265 the ideal of planning also shapes and influences programs for excellence.
aiming at promoting the development of high-tech industry and the use of S&t in rural economic development, respectively.
as are the Agricultural S&t Transfer Fund and the New National Products Program. Overall it could be argued that S&t spending by China's government spending has been focused more on generating knowledge than on utilizing it.
This is not an uncommon phenomenon when compared with many other countries. However, the imbalance acquires greater significance
2011), further accentuating the bias against diffusion in the S&t programs. 3. 5 Institution-and capacity-building Several programs aim at building and strengthening China's emerging institutions and capacities.
Within the S&t programs, the most obvious are the National S&t Infrastructure Fund and the NSFC Fund for less developed regions.
Other programs with institution-and capacity-building features are the S&t Basic Program and the Special Technology development Project for Research institutions.
which strengthen China's S&t system by conducting world-class research, transferring research results to industry, providing S&t policy advice,
and linking China into the international S&t community. Recently, however, the KIP has linked increasingly research at its institutes to mission objectives,
again reinforcing the focus on missions rather than institutional development (Suttmeier et al. 2006). Overall, institution-and capacity-building have received much less attention and focus than mission or excellence as priorities
and Lundvall (2006) who argue that the investments in S&t have not been supported sufficiently by institutional development.
M. Benner et al. 4. 1 Setting the agenda Chinese S&t policy-making can be divided into componeent
The national S&t programs, such as the 863 Program, the 973 Program or the KIP, are created outside the temporal planning cycle in response to problems
Several national S&t programs and initiatives have been created following public appeals or statements made by well-known scientists.
However, rather than being spontaneous initiatives taking the government by surprise these appeals tend to address widely known issues or problems in China's S&t system.
In some cases they may even be encouraged by the government, letting experts point to problem areas
As an example, the 863 Program was preceded by a letter written by four Chinese scientists (Daheng Wang, Ganchang Wang G.,Jiachi Yang G,
is considered widely to have been the response by then-Premier Li peng to concerns voiced by scientists at the Political Consultation Conference (zhengxie) in March 1997 that basic research was being neglected in S&t funding.
Its members are well-known scientists intellectuaals and businessmen, belonging to various political parties. They usually take the opportunities provided by the conferences to provide policy suggestions to the government.
For the above-listed S&t programs, which are implemennte outside the five-year or medium-and long-term planning cycle,
the original impetus can be argued to have come from scientists, and thus from outside the governmment However, the appeals or demands for policy action did not take the government by surprise
These two groups were responsible for identifying key S&t issues relevant for the next medium-and long-term plan.
In June 2003,20 key S&t issues were identified and studies were commissioned. The process surrounding the strategic studies was open (except for the national defense issue.
More than two thousand scientists, engineers, policy experts, corporate executives, officials from universities, ministries, and corporations participated in the strategic studies.
In addition to the domestic process, workshops were held with international experts at the Multi-S&t Minister Forum in Shenzhen in October 2003,
A senior policy researcher observed that the main actors involved in S&t policy-making were government ministries and scientists.
Overall, the processes surrounding priority-setting in China's national S&t programs are characterized by formal and elaborate processes with an emphasis on input by scientific experts,
a Chinese idiom, is a‘slogan'metaphor among Chinese science policy-makers, meaning‘go forward with your head in the clouds and the feet on the ground'.
‘Feet on the ground'(lidi) means that Chinese S&t should be targeted at China's strategic economic, social and national defense needs.
empowering individuua researchers, increasing the visibility of Chinese research and enabling technological leapfrogging, strengthening linkages between academic environments and industry, supporting high value-added industry,
drawing S&t ever closer into the political core. The 1978 Science Conference functioned as a starting-point for a renovation of the S&t system by acknowledging S&t as a productive force.
This paved the way for the 1985,1995 and 2005 decisions and plans to strengthen the S&t infrastructure,
linking investments in S&t to broader societal goals which gave science policy a widened political mandate.
More recently, a‘post-catching up'strategy has emerged, integrating S&t with a new evolutiionar path for China,
as a leader in innovation, but also a society balancing economic growth with social stabillit and ecological balance.
With every wave we find a broader and more encompassing portfolio of priorities, as well as broader consultation and mobilization of interests behind different goals.
which reflects a much broader constituenncy often at the behest of central government support of basic research (Mega-science Projects,
In themselves, the MLPS represent an important articulattio of science and innovation policy with the broader fields of policy:
Hence, the plans function as a discursive framing of science and innovation policies into the broader project of societal modernization,
while also indicating the decoupling of science from the planning exercises of the past. 268.
Several contradictions confront actors in the Chinese S&t system: the large number of programs and initiatives, leading to overlaps, the ambition to foster public debates and pluralist deliberation,
we still find a strong emphasis on grandiose projects, less on the processes and the governance of S&t and reforms of S&t institutions.
overall the dominant legacy of centralized planning for grandiose projects still looms over science policy, and may continue to thwart the ambitiion of Chinese scientists to develop a more genuinely pluralist system of resource allocation.
Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank Richard P. Suttmeier and the two anonymous referees for their valuable comments.
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