computers and an increasingly automated exchange of data To fully exploit this potential, we must ensure that network
of computers and data We will devote particular attention to ensuring undistorted competition between companies, further reducing barriers
and develop the computer, mobile phone and internet applications that are powering these changes. The needs span a wide range of skills, from
4. 6 Mobile phone repair and computer assembly...26 4. 7 Green jobs...26 4. 7. 1 Green jobs and ICTS...
mobile phones (63 per cent), computers (39 per cent), or both. 69 Text messaging services do not appear to
sometimes lacking, explaining why some programmes prefer mobile phones over computers. Other barriers, like initial and ongoing costs,
even finding and carrying out work via their mobile devices. The very notion of the â€oework place†now
can be completed via the internet or mobile devices. Microwork is considered the smallest †the most granular †unit of work in a virtual assembly line. 88 It also requires the lowest level of skills
including computer skills and English Website: www. samasource. org 4. 3 Apps development There is speculation regarding how the growing trend of apps development will generate new
The rapid rise of smartphones, tablets and social media, and the applications-â€oeappsâ€-that run on them,
4. 6 Mobile phone repair and computer assembly Mobile phone repair as well as computer maintenance and assembly continue to be important areas of
youth job training and employment in many regions around the world. In cities throughout the developing
educate orphans and vulnerable children in Rwanda in computer applications, maintenance repair, and use of technological tools to help them create jobs
livelihoods programme called AKAZI KANOZE, youth are trained in computer maintenance and repair, as well as photography and design.
for most jobs entailing use of computers. While this may still hold true in some cases, basic computer
literacy is not sufficient to pursue the majority of new opportunities described in earlier chapters.
This chapter begins with a look at the evolution from computer to digital literacy, the latter widely
Computer literacy â€oerefers to the ability to use computers and related technologies, from end-users to ICT
Basic computer skills include (sample •turning a computer on and off •using a mouse and keyboard
•understanding basic computer terminology and concepts •understanding operating system, programmes, and data •managing files
Intermediate computer skills (sample •performing basic functions of common productivity programmes (word processing spreadsheet, presentation
•using email and web browser •installing software and hardware Advanced computer skills (sample •programming
•using advanced features of productivity programmes •fixing simple computer problems Computer literacy at the intermediate level is becoming required for almost every job.
In the health sector discussed in Chapter 3 for example, hospital employees must be able to use medical records systems
and perform other routine tasks on a computer that used to be done on paper.
Even in many jobs that do not entail contact with a computer employers are screening for
basic computer skills as a minimum qualification for employment. 117 An increasing number of non-IT
required job applicants to have computer skills even though they would not use computers in their tasks
Digital opportunities: Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 30 5. 2 Digital literacy Most of today†s attention around ICT skills is focused on the concept of digital literacy.
and not every ihubber133 with a laptop is an entrepreneur. Technology in itself isn†t a business yet.
mobile phone devices far eclipsing personal computers in most of the world â€oefor many entrepreneurs in developing countries and rural areas, a mobile device is a tool not only for contacting customers and
accessing the internet, but also for making financial transactions, establishing a client database, or coordinating justin-time supply-chain deliveries.
and transfer money easily with a mobile device. It has 12 million people who rely on it using the company†s 20 000 distribution sites.
Other mobile payment processors that work with mobile devices, such as Square147, are also making business transactions easier for young entrepreneurs
increasingly sophisticated technologies and applications that are available on smart phones, tablets and personal computers Digital opportunities:
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 43 A study looking at learning spaces and the influence of ICTS identifies six trends as the hallmark of the
name a few †which are readily available through tablets, mobile phones, and personal computers Blended learning requires active participation and engagement from the students,
cutters, CNC (computer numerical control) routers and CNC milling machines are often part of the equipment mix as well.
In all cases, mobile devices can help young students access information at their own pace, and in
the portability of smart phones with the broader functionality of personal computers. Research on teens in South africa who have smart phones
benefits of the computers for educational uses, though they also reported a desire for these places to
The most prominent example is the European Computer Driver Licence. 174 Despite its name, there are accredited test centres in most countries in the world
174 European Computer Driver Licence, www. ecdl. org Digital opportunities: Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment
The European Computer Driving Licence is an international computer skills certification programme. Outside of Europe it is known as the International Computer Driving Licence.
The certification programme operates in 41 languages, working through partnerships with national operators and test centres located in 148 countries.
of modules to build different levels of computer skills †from basic to advanced †that will
inadequate student-computer ratios; ICT learning restricted to studying basic computer literacy and not for learning other subjects;
basic computer skills and knowledge of productivity applications may still qualify a person for routine
community technology centres and other places that offer computer resources, internet connectivity, and space for group activity are positioned ideally to implement programmes that will provide youth with the
Hackathon Event where computer developers, graphic designers, and/or other experts come together to collaborate
collaborate around computers, technology, or digital art Digital opportunities: Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 70
Refers to the outsourcing of computer or internet related work, such as programming Knowledge process outsourcing (KPO
Mobile learning Learning via a mobile device or learning that happens when the learner is not at a
4. 6 Mobile phone repair and computer assembly 4. 7 Green jobs 4. 7. 1 Green jobs and ICTS
She is a computer engineer and Phd candidate with an MA in Computer science at UNICAMP, Brazil.
use of the internet and mobile devices, these tools will serve to empower members of the
use the power and versatility of online maps and mobile devices for collectively gathering and sharing spatial information for improving accessibility for persons with limited mobility
Proceedings of the 1992 ACM Conference on Computer-Supported Cooperative Work. pp. 107-114 Eden, C. 1999)' Using Cognitive Mapping for Strategic Options Development and
'Computer Supported Cooperative Work 21. pp. 417-448 73 Liu, K. 2000) Semiotics in Information systems Engineering.
the world†s largest networks of computers and data centres for online-search results and can repurpose their technology in or
-cost home 3d manufacturing tools (3d printers, CNC †computer numeric con -trol †machines), free CAD/CAM software, like Blender, 123d or Sketchup, and
every four years, organised by the Chaos Computer Club (CCC) 11, an informal associa -tion of hackers from across Europe
The Chaos Computer Club (CCC), Europe†s largest network of hackers, is the most prominent example of grassroots commu
the club also fights for free access to computers and technological infrastructure for everybody. The latest gathering of the CCC in 2012 in Hamburg, Germany, brought together
The Chaos Computer Club (CCC) HACKERS NETWORKS 34 Growing a Digital Social Innovation Ecosystem for Europe
computer-friendly formats for anyone to download, use, and analyse, as long as the privacy and data protection of all citizens is preserved
of mobile devices. Smartphones, tablets, PDAS and other devices are becoming smaller faster, smarter, more networked and personal.
Dataflows are also burgeoning as the Internet of things integrates a vast universe of network-aware sensors, actuators
Today mobile devices with always-on Internetâ connectivity are becoming widespread 74 Growing a Digital Social Innovation Ecosystem for Europe
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jpg Accessed 29th january 2015 Page 34 http://www. e-living. net/sites/default /files/field/image/internet-of-things-2. jpg
Hd Desktop 10†online Audphoto. com Available from: http://aduphoto. com /earth-from-space-at-night-wallpaper-hd
Examples include computers in classrooms, the use of assistive devices for the elderly, or implants to cut
work best (such as the discovery that giving computers to two children to share is more effective for education than giving them one each.
They ensure that Ubuntu runs reliably on every platform from the PC and the smartphone
computer-controlled tools that cover several different length scales and various materials with the aim to make
and processed (by computer software and/or humans), e g. software applications, services, knowledge, taxonomies folksonomies, ontologies, descriptions of skills, reputation and trust relationships, training modules, contractual
from the single computer to the local area network (LAN) at ï rst, and eventually to the global Internet.
computers motivated the development of distributed architectures and shared resources, culminating in the peer-to
by computer software and/or humans; potentially any description of the economic and social actors, their capacities, skills and the
computer behaviours. The Web is engineered an space created through formally speciï ed languages and protocols
whether computer processes, humans, or a mixture thereof •••18 In the Web, due to the pressure of user needs, we see a continuous evolution of the protocols and artiï cial languages
â€oeunderstanding Computers and Cognition, A new foundation for Designâ€, Noorwood Newyersey: Ablex Publishing Corporation Magnibh feugait vercipismodvolobortin ulla conulla
the iphone, ipad and ipod touch http://www. doingbusiness. org/specialfeatures /iphone 92 Spain Doing Business 2015
Chaos Computer Club Table 5 29 The spread of organisation types across organisations on the map are represented in Table 6 and visualised
Chaos Computer Club (CCC), Europe†s largest network of Hackers, is the most prominent example of grass
the principles of the hacker ethic, the club also fights for free access to computers and technological infra
that takes place every four years, organized by the Chaos Computer Club (CCC)( GE), an informal associa
Theâ Chaos Computer Clubâ (CCC) hosts the annual Chaos Communication Congress, the largest hacker con
computer-friendly formats for anyone to download, use, and analyse as long as the privacy and data protection of all citizens is preserved
number of mobile devices. Smartphones, tablets, PDAS and other devices are becoming smaller, faster smarter, more networked and personal.
An unlocked Android phone with touch screen, Wifi and GPS that sold for $300 four years ago now costs $30,
or they can communicate with software running on a computer (e g Flash, Processing, Maxmsp 59
and with mobile devices, based on the experience of Code for America which aims to be beneficial to all the participating countries.
of mobile and web-based devices such as smartphones, computers and sensors. The work on Everyaware is presently ongoing (the project runs
-phone, laptop, tablet or other compatible device, helps turn the hardware into a router. Working with similarly equipped devices within a range of
approximately 20 meters, the mesh app then discovers, shares and coor -dinates access to any available Internet off ramp,
as well as benefits the handset and tablet manufactures The Open Garden app is free for anyone to install on his or her smart
-phone, tablet or computer, and it also licenses its technology to carriers device manufacturers and Organisations
devices, from smartphones to tablets to laptops and desktops. Operators can boost their offerings even as they offload traffic from their networks
borrow and share anything from trumpets to laptop chargers with their neighbours Peerby†s uniqueness lies in its proactive approach:
of Cambridge†s Computer Laboratory. The idea behind the Raspberrypi came about as a way to try
interacting with computers, as the team was concerned about the year -on-year decline in the numbers and skills levels of prospective under
the Raspberry Pi team sought to develop a tiny, cheap computer for kids which would encourage programming experimentation and encourage
to see only if you opened up your computer and looked at its internal boards). ) Although seemingly basic in design, it has all the components
computers can†t reach 187 It has very low power consumption, so can work more easily in electrical
Other than the fact that the demand for the Raspberry Pi computers have exceeded far the team†s original predicted figure of 10,000 (with
For this reason Raspberry Pi computers have already been used as as learning tools in the context of various developing countries such as
Laptop Per Child programme demonstrates that more rigorous assess -ment is needed to verify that the ICT (Information and communications
all the components of a desktop computer into a single silicon chip Furthermore, thanks to advances in technology, Raspberry Pi, unlike
-form for teaching computer-based mathematics techniques to children of all ages Current Raspberry Pi users can also avail of this joint recent collabora
plug it into the tiny computer and connect to a shared Wi-fi to access Coder through Chrome.
-ployer†s computers to check or send mail, you can inadvertently reveal your national origin and professional affiliation to anyone observing the
-dated computers, browsers as well as Internet communication security policy as significant obstacles to accessing the UHP website and data
spare computer processing power to analyse data, known as volunteer computing, Zooniverse projects require the active participation of
data is in forms that computers still can†t process, but that human beings can This is where the uniting of †citizen scienceâ€
Chaos Computer Club Table 5 29 The spread of organisation types across organisations on the map are represented in Table 6 and visualised
Chaos Computer Club (CCC), Europe†s largest network of Hackers, is the most prominent example of grass
the principles of the hacker ethic, the club also fights for free access to computers and technological infra
that takes place every four years, organized by the Chaos Computer Club (CCC)( GE), an informal associa
Theâ Chaos Computer Clubâ (CCC) hosts the annual Chaos Communication Congress, the largest hacker con
computer-friendly formats for anyone to download, use, and analyse as long as the privacy and data protection of all citizens is preserved
number of mobile devices. Smartphones, tablets, PDAS and other devices are becoming smaller, faster smarter, more networked and personal.
An unlocked Android phone with touch screen, Wifi and GPS that sold for $300 four years ago now costs $30,
or they can communicate with software running on a computer (e g Flash, Processing, Maxmsp 59
and with mobile devices, based on the experience of Code for America which aims to be beneficial to all the participating countries.
of mobile and web-based devices such as smartphones, computers and sensors. The work on Everyaware is presently ongoing (the project runs
-phone, laptop, tablet or other compatible device, helps turn the hardware into a router. Working with similarly equipped devices within a range of
approximately 20 meters, the mesh app then discovers, shares and coor -dinates access to any available Internet off ramp,
as well as benefits the handset and tablet manufactures The Open Garden app is free for anyone to install on his or her smart
-phone, tablet or computer, and it also licenses its technology to carriers device manufacturers and Organisations
devices, from smartphones to tablets to laptops and desktops. Operators can boost their offerings even as they offload traffic from their networks
borrow and share anything from trumpets to laptop chargers with their neighbours Peerby†s uniqueness lies in its proactive approach:
of Cambridge†s Computer Laboratory. The idea behind the Raspberrypi came about as a way to try
interacting with computers, as the team was concerned about the year -on-year decline in the numbers and skills levels of prospective under
the Raspberry Pi team sought to develop a tiny, cheap computer for kids which would encourage programming experimentation and encourage
to see only if you opened up your computer and looked at its internal boards). ) Although seemingly basic in design, it has all the components
computers can†t reach 187 It has very low power consumption, so can work more easily in electrical
Other than the fact that the demand for the Raspberry Pi computers have exceeded far the team†s original predicted figure of 10,000 (with
For this reason Raspberry Pi computers have already been used as as learning tools in the context of various developing countries such as
Laptop Per Child programme demonstrates that more rigorous assess -ment is needed to verify that the ICT (Information and communications
all the components of a desktop computer into a single silicon chip Furthermore, thanks to advances in technology, Raspberry Pi, unlike
-form for teaching computer-based mathematics techniques to children of all ages Current Raspberry Pi users can also avail of this joint recent collabora
plug it into the tiny computer and connect to a shared Wi-fi to access Coder through Chrome.
-ployer†s computers to check or send mail, you can inadvertently reveal your national origin and professional affiliation to anyone observing the
-dated computers, browsers as well as Internet communication security policy as significant obstacles to accessing the UHP website and data
spare computer processing power to analyse data, known as volunteer computing, Zooniverse projects require the active participation of
data is in forms that computers still can†t process, but that human beings can This is where the uniting of †citizen scienceâ€
As the powers of computers advance rapidly, new technologies will be tested evaluated and modified on-line before physical
A Computer Simulationâ€, Organization Science, Vol. 8, No. 3 may-Jun.,1997), pp. 289 -309 2 Andersen, M m.,(
of the computer and of mobile devices such as tablets and smartphones, are changing dramatically in terms of behaviour and expectations as shoppers.
recently, with the growth and universal spread of mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets, a fourth and rapidly expanding channel has been added:
m-commerce, for mobile commerce Although each channel retains the unique characteristics that compel customers to engage
Consumers need a computer or mobile device and access to high-speed internet for shopping online. If a consumer wants to buy online he often
the computer age everywhere but in the productivity statisticsâ€*.*Most economists believe this productivity surge can be traced in part to the benefits of ICT
that buying a new computer instantly has a positive impact on productivity†a notion that seems at odds with
phones, personal computers (PCS) and the Internet appear to achieve the greatest economic benefit from ICT.
and vote online using flat-screen computer terminals Digital documentation has replaced paper in preparations for cabinet sessions,
Ln GDP pc-0. 9022-2. 5293-0. 9697-3. 6772-2. 0894-5. 6645
3. Personal computers (number per 100 population 4. Internet users (per 100 population Each indicator is transformed into an index scaled 1-10 (using minimum
Ln GDP pc-2. 1840-3. 6787-2. 6461-4. 0388-2. 1148-3. 9894
Initial GDP pc-0. 62 INV-0. 24 DEMOGRAPHY 0. 08 BUSENV 0. 47 SCHOOL 0. 69
Telecoms, software and computer services 14 Professional services 12 Construction and real estate 8 Healthcare, pharmaceuticals and biotechnology 8
This trend is underpinned further by the fast growth of smartphones, tablets and other devices enabling
%reported using a tablet. Similarly, the fact that only 17%of the population reported using the internet for
A survey,"Computer Networks, Vol. 54, No. 15,2010, pp. 2787-2805 Backhaus, J.,S. Breukers, O. Mont, M. Paukovic,
computer and internet penetration, National Bureau of Economic Research, 2006 Choudhry, M. T. E. Marelli,
Causes,"Social science Computer Review, Vol. 21, No. 2 may 1, 2003,2003, pp. 144-161 http://ssc. sagepub. com/content/21/2/144. abstract
education and technology,"Journal of computer assisted learning, Vol. 26, No. 1, 2010, pp. 74-93
Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 17: 319†336. doi: 10.1111/j. 1083-6101.2012.01574. x Goerres, A. 2007), Why are Older People More Likely to Vote?
"Computers & Security, Vol. 30, No. 8, 2011, pp. 803-814 http://www. sciencedirect. com/science/article/pii/S016740481100085x
and life satisfaction, †Computers in Human Behavior, Vol. 30, pp. 69†78 O'neill, Brian C.,Deborah Balk, Melanie Brickman,
schools use computers for administrative purposes. ICTS have impacted greatly the health sector and are increasingly being used to improve the administrative efficiency of health
stand-alone computers. Some of the healthcare systems that have been developed include billing, financial systems, patient registration, computer based record systems and pharmacy
systems. Most of lab equipment and radiology equipment are computerized now and linked through data networks.
Healthnet one of the most widely implemented computer-based telecommunications systems in Sub-saharan africa, currently is being used in over 30 countries by around 10,000
Out of the health facilities that were visited only two (2) private hospitals used computers for the registration of patients.
None of the health facilities used computers to process immunisation activities. Seven (7) out of the eight (8) health facilities had documented a well
Medical personnel most commonly use computers like accountants and secretaries. Until 1993, Uganda had centralized a health information system (HIS)
computer and resources to maintain it, are provided with an easy spreadsheet based system for compiling monthly and annual reports.
computer mediated social relations, Routledge, London Kasozi, M. and Nkuuhe, J. 2003. Uganda Chartered Healthnet promotes healthcare using
Testing the use of handheld computers for heathcare in Ghana, Uganda, and Kenya. Report published:
The most innovative industries, such as computers, instruments and pharmaceuticals also tend to be the most R&d intensive (Audretsch, 1995.
newly emerging industries like biotechnology and computer software (Audretsch, 1995. One answer is that knowledge inputs come from third-party firms
front, they make parallel-processing computers for Japan and satellite receivers for Germany.""12 41. To some extent this is strategy employed by Germany's small-and mid-size companies
individuals move easily from semiconductor to disk drive firms or from computer to network makers. They move from established firms to start-ups (or vice versa) and even to market research
and utilize computers (81,94) %and access & use the Internet (80.83%)in their activities. Three quarters of SMES use the electronic mail
Computers 518 Nelu Eugen Popescu/Procedia Economics and Finance 16 (2014) 512 †520 Figure 5:
Most SMES use computers, Internet and the e-mail in their business activities and some of them even developed
basic levels of innovation among more traditional SMES (e g. use of anti-virus software, computer -based invoicing, etc) reaching out to over 80 000 firms since 2005.
and tablet devices has changed the way people shop and the constant connectivity has seen a shift in shopping time and
through a mobile device **Average worldwide Cross-border B2c E-commerce Most popular countries USA 45 %UK 37
made through a smartphone or tablet during that period France French consumers made more than 600 million
mobile devices Top 5 companies based on unique visitors 1. Zalando 2. Amazon 3. Euronics 4. IBS
computer was invented in the 1940s) or cellular telephone communication (the technological principles have been discovered in the 1920s.
computer-integrated manufacturing: co-occurrence of G06 and any of A21c A22b, A22c, A23n, A24c, A41h, A42c, A43d, B01f, B02b, B02c, B03b
The other refers to computer-integrated manufacturing processes While the former can be identified directly through IPC classes,
have a very strong industry focus on electronics (incl. computer, semiconductor and telecommunication) and instruments (optical, medical, measurement.
Public Research*Computer/Semiconductor Telecommunication Other Electronics Instruments Chemicals Pharmaceuticals Nanotech Biotech Materials Equipment *ERROR-Flatefilter:
Public Research*Computer/Semiconductor Telecommunication Other Electronics Instruments Chemicals Pharmaceuticals Nanotech Biotech Materials Equipment *including patents by government authorities and by private individuals
industry (sum of computer, semiconductor, telecommunication and other electronics) is the largest applicant sector for nanoelectronics, nanooptics and nanomagnetics.
Computer/semiconductor 1 18 3 8 8 19 6 Telecommunication 0 4 2 2 12 3 2
is a computer company, followed by a university and a diversified materials producer largely based on chemical technologies.
FR government 111 1 Hewlett-packard US computer 107 2 L'oreal FR chemicals 57 2 Univ. of California US research 90
9 Philips NL electronics 33 9 IBM US computer 37 10 Arkema FR chemicals 31 10 Univ. of Illinois US research 33
8 Fujitsu JP computer 52 9 Fujifilm JP chemicals 47 10 Seiko JP instruments 40
12 Toshiba JP computer 32 13 Showa Denko JP chemicals 29 14 TDK JP electronics 27
semiconductors, computer, telecommunication, instruments, chemicals, automotive, defence machinery, other materials, research, and other electronics. Figure 4-14 shows the sector
Other Electronics Semiconductors Computer Telecommunication Instruments Chemicals Automotive Defence Machinery Other Materials Research Source: EPO:
and for computer manufacturers in North america and East asia European Competitiveness in KETS ZEW and TNO
Other Electronics Semiconductors Computer Telecommunication Instruments Chemicals Automotive Defence Machinery Other Materials Research Source: EPO:
2 STMICROELECTRONICS IT semiconductor 724 2 IBM US computer 645 3 ASML NL semiconductor 568 3 Intel US semiconductor 615
10 NXP NL semiconductor 193 10 Hewlett-packard US computer 395 11 S. O. I. Tec FR semiconductor 153 11 Motorola US telecommunication 326
4 Fujitsu JP computer 903 5 Nikon JP instruments 736 6 NEC JP telecommunication 675
use in computers has decreased relatively. Nevertheless, Figure 4-20 shows that with a share of almost 40 percent of total sales (2007), computers still dominate the final use for
semiconductors, followed by the telecom market segment with around 25 percent Figure 4-20: Worldwide semiconductor sales 2007, by market segment (percent
%Computer 39.6 %Source: OECD, based on Semiconductor Industry Association (SIA European Competitiveness in KETS ZEW and TNO
for computer manufacturers in North america and East asia In Europe, patenting activities are concentrated highly among a few firms compared to North
and image guided systems make use of computer tomography in navigated surgery. Laser diagnosis and treatments in ophthalmology, dermatology and other
microelectronics as the technology that computers use to †think†(optical computing), leading to a huge increase in performance (EC, 2008a
The electronics industry (incl. computer and semiconductor) and the optical industry (including lighting, cable and solar cells
Optical/cable/solar Lighting Telecommunication Semiconductor/computer Other Electronics Chemicals Glass/ceramics Other Materials Machinery/instruments Vehicles/defence Public research
Optical/cable/solar Lighting Telecommunication Semiconductor/computer Other Electronics Chemicals Glass/ceramics Other Materials Machinery/instruments Vechicles/defence Public research
semiconductors, computers or lighting) is the most important applicant sector for all four subfields in photonics. 30 percent of all lighting patents and 27 percent of all solar patents
Semiconductor/computer 5 9 10 6 Other Electronics 27 30 24 21 Chemicals 10 17 4 14
9 Infineon DE semiconductors 169 9 Hew lett-Packard US computer 174 10 Schott DE glass 166 10 ADC TELECOMMUNICATIONS US telecommunication 165
14 Fujitsu JP computer 353 15 NEC JP telecommunication 336 16 Idemitsu Kosan JP oil 295
decades has been the integration of numerically controlled, i e. computer-integrated technologies into manufacturing processes that allow for a vertical integration of planning
Robotics, automation technologies and computer-integrated manufacturing are the keywords for AMT Industries in which AMT are important can
computer integrated manufacturing (G06 and at least one of the following classes: A21c A22b, A22c, A23n, A24c, A41h, A42c, A43d, B01f, B02b, B02c, B03b, B03d
computer-integrated manufacturing and robotics. What is more, a number of large electronics companies have important automation businesses (e g.
the diffusion of computer-integrated manufacturing technologies and other types of flexible manufacturing (see Link and Kapur, 1994.
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