Department of Business Economics International Doctorate in Entrepreneurship and Management DOCTORAL DISSERTATION Degree of Doctor of philosophy †Ph d
3. Absorptive Capability and Organizational Learning Theory 27 4. Social network in Organizational Contexts 32 5. Entrepreneurial Orientation 35
2. 2. Learning-by-exporting: from export activities toward innovativeness 99 3. Research Design 100
Table 4. Absorptive capability (ACAP) and organizational learning OLER): ) a brief of main studies 30
supporters there are professors, fellow doctoral classmates, academic staff, friends, and of course, my family. To this special group,
contribution to my training as a researcher. Alex, thanks for accepting to lead this work
I would like to give a heartfelt, special thanks to all professors of the Business Economics department of the Universitat Autã noma de Barcelona.
being a Ph d. student. Special thanks to Yanina, Matias, Veronica, Any, Pedro, Felipe Moraes, Renan, Laura, Gabriel, Jeroen, Yoly, Clemens and Carlos. I extend my thanks
Learning Theory Research design 9 Quantitative study 9 Survey from 121 Spanish SMES 9 Multiple regression analysis
Entrepreneurship scholars have developed numerous typologies to describe alternate perspective of entrepreneurship. These classification systems typically depict
strategic learning from failure firm size, and firm age Lumpkin and Dess 1996 Dynamism, munificence
3. Absorptive Capability and Organizational Learning Theory Absorptive capability and organizational learning have been used in diverse and
significant organizational phenomena. The importance of these approaches has been noted across the fields of strategic management (Lane and Lubatkin, 1998;
organizational learning, and firm outcomes that pertain to creating a competitive 28 advantage. Table 4 provides a useful example
using absorptive capabilities and organizational learning approaches in different fields of organizational management The Learning Theory, in essence, suggests that an organization learns when its routines
systems, and policies assimilate activities and experiences (Grant, 1996. In this vein Sapienza et al. 2005) pointed out that the greater a firm†s attention to developing new
the greater its learning is. This point of view is consistent with previous theory, which holds that the amount of information
presence, â€oeinternational learning effort†(Sapienza et al. 2005), extends, and highlights the idea of an absorptive-based view and learning theory as a framework for theory and
hypotheses regarding international business. Consistent with Johanson and Vahlne 1991), firms may learn directly from foreign-market experience and indirectly via
Table 4. Absorptive capability (ACAP) and organizational learning (OLER: a brief of main studies Study Theoretical
expansion promotes technological learning, which in turn enhances performance 9 Technological learning has a positive effect on firm
performance 9 International diversity and mode of entry have a positive, direct effect on firm performance, in
technological learning 31 Table 4. Continued Study Theoretical approach Treatment/modeling Outcome/effects Lane et al.
Test a model of international joint ventures learning and performance that segments ACAP into the three
international joint ventures learning and performance as well as a initial insights into how those relationship change over time
entrepreneurial orientation are associated with learning activities 9 Early internationalization is positively related to learning effort 9 Entrepreneurial orientation is positively related to
learning effort Source: Self-elaborated 32 4. Social network in Organizational Contexts Approximately 30 years ago, an important new area of research within the
organizational context emerged. The starting point of the study of social networks was drawn on a broader revitalization of the field of economic sociology (Hoang and
Several scholars began to question the widely held view that entrepreneurs, as economic actors, were isolated and that the entrepreneurial process
Scholars employing the network perspective have generated a considerable body of organizational research exploring how networks of individuals, groups or firms relate to organizational outcomes
In summary, over the past three decades, scholars have devoted considerable attention to examining the antecedents and implications of networks in organizational contexts
of organizational scholarship, including leadership knowledge utilization, innovation, profit maximization entrepreneurship, and so on. †Borgatti and
inspired numerous scholars of strategic management Miller and Friesen 1982 In their article Innovation in conservative and
learning from failure. Therefore, EO and growth (measured by sales growth, in this study) were related more positive among firms that employ autocratic decision-making
A number of scholars have asserted that several elements of networks can create advantages in a firm†s environment (Gulati et al.
As pointed out before, many scholars suggest that firm networks can play an important role in the entrepreneurial process (Elfring and Hulsink, 2003;
scholars examine the relationship between innovation and export performance (e g Caldera, 2010; Cassiman and Golovko, 2011;
Consistent with the resource-and learning-based view, we focus on the relationship between innovativeness and export activity.
study responds to calls by scholars who have encouraged more research on the role of export propensity on firm innovation (e g.,
2. 2. Learning-by-exporting: from export activities toward innovativeness As indicated before, there is growing recognition about the relationship between
perspective on learning-by-exporting. It is acknowledged that the ability of a firm to recognize the value of new and external knowledge with an absorptive capacity (Cohen
component to learning and innovation Despite not being a longitudinal study, in this research we assume to be consistent with
2005) that there is a learning effort in foreign markets by companies. Thus, companies may learn directly from foreign
with the learning-based view, obviously this is a potential option. Despite, not having extensive literature examining the reverse relationship,
Consistent with the learning-by-exporting view, and in accordance with previous research, the following hypothesis can be addressed
may be inclined more to exert learning effort (Sapienza et al. 2005). ) For instance, we expected consumer product-oriented firms to develop more new products (Salomon and
Thus, our findings might be consistent with the existence of learning-by -exporting emphasized in recent literature (Salomon and Jin, 2008;
network perspective can also provide new insights for strategy for scholars who are proponents of a resource-based view of the firm
existence of learning-by-exporting, which could be particularly relevant for this group of firms to achieve higher levels of innovation
In general, the present results are encouraging to entrepreneurship scholars. Thus another observation to future research is that examining the EO-performance
experimental learning and acquisitive learning (Zhao et al. 2011 4. 3. Essay Three This essay is subject to several limitations that typify behavioral research and we
should include a longitudinal perspective observing the effects of learning-by-exporting on a firm†s innovativeness (e g.,
University Press, Cambridge, MA Caldera, A. 2010. Innovation and exporting: evidence from Spanish manufacturing firms.
Journal of International Business studies, 42,1-20 137 Cassiman, B. and Martã nez-Ros, E. 2007.
Mimeo, IESE Business school, Barcelona, 1-36 Chandler, A d. 1962. Strategy and structure: Chapters in the history of the American
learning and innovation. Administrative Science Quarterly, 35,128-152 Cooper, A c. 1979. Strategic Management: new ventures and small business.
GCG Georgetown University †Universia, 3, 52-67 139 Delgado-Gà mez, J. M.,Ramã rez-Alesã N m. and Espitia-Escuer, M. A. 2004
Business studies, 28,337-360 European commission. Commission recommendation of 6 may 2003 concerning the definition of small and medium-sized enterprises.
Journal of International Business studies, 35,124-141 Kreiser, P m. 2011. Entrepreneurial orientation and organization learning: the impact
of network range and network closure. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 35 1025-1050 Lachenmaier, S and Wobmann, L. 2006.
interorganizational learning. Strategic Management Journal, 19,461-477 Lawrence, P. and Lorsch, J. 1967. Organization and environment.
learning capability, knowledge, threshold and patterns of growth. Research Policy, 39,278-289 Lechner, C.,Dowling, M. 2003.
Journal of International Business studies, 27,517 -551 Levenburg, N m. and Schwarz, T. V. 2008. Entrepreneurial orientation among the
the impact of culture, education and environment. The Journal of Entrepreneurship, 17,15-35 147 LÃ pez Rodrã guez, J. and Garcã a Rodrã guez, R. 2005.
Exploration and exploitation in organization learning Organization Science, 2, 71-87 Meade, A w.,Watson, A m. and Kroustalis, M. 2007.
mediation of learning orientation. Technovation 30,65-75 151 Rialp, A. 2003. Fundamentos teã ricos de la organizaciã n de empresas.
and domestic learning effort. Journal of Business Venturing, 20,437-457 Salomon, R. and Jin, B. 2008.
industry heterogeneity in learning by exporting. Journal of International Business Studies, 39,132-150 Salomon, R. and Shaver, J. 2005.
Learning-by-exporting: new insights from examining firm innovation. Journal of Economics and Management Strategy, 14
The Journal of Education Research, 99,323-337 Slater, S. and Narver, J. 1995. Market orientation and the learning organization
Journal of Marketing, 59,63-74 Schumpeter, J. 1934. The theory of the economic development, Cambridge university
organizational learning, and performance: evidence from China. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 35,293-317 156 157
%Education 7 %Insurance 7 %Healthcare providers 6 %Retail 5 %Transportation 4 %Utilities 3 %Media 2
As digital business projects dynamically pivot with experimentation, innovation and learning, business cases may change dramatically.
where digitalization can take the Business education and inspiration are central tasks for CIOS determined to be digital leaders.
S&e graduates grew by 51%from 2 430 000 in 2000 to 3 679 000 in 2010.
and engineering graduates, the largest increase of the world share has been among the BRIS countries and in other
1) Tertiary graduates in science and engineering ii) Other Developed Asian Economies does not include SG and TW
World share of S&e graduates, researchers, GERD, high-impact publications and patent applications, 2000 and latest year
Science and technology graduates from tertiary education (ISCED 5 and 6)( 1 Participation in global R&d â€%shares
data processed by the University of Bocconi, Italy 14 Europe†s compet it ive technology prof i le in the g lobal ised knowledge economy
data processed by the University of Bocconi, Italy Data Eurostat, DG ECFIN, OECD Source: DG Research and Innovation †Economic Analysis Unit
data processed by the University of Bocconi, Italy 17 3. Potential of European cooperation in
13 Tsipouri, L. Paper presented at the European commission Mutual Learning seminar, 2012 14 Expert group report to the European commission, 2009, †Le monde en 2025.
paper 2009/06, Circle, Lund University Stehrer, R. 2013) †Vertical specialisation in global value chainsâ€, in Innovation Union Competitiveness report 2013
technologies and innovative productsâ€, paper presented at the European commission Mutual Learning seminar 2012 references European commission
Radboud University Nijmegen and he has a great interest in the international (digital economy and e-commerce
Studies at Radboud University Nijmegen and graduated in 2008 Jorij Abraham, Director Research & Advice
studies Business Management at the University of Applied sciences in Ede. He is involved in the research of the e-commerce market
These advantages include learning and reputation effects as well as standard settings and developing innovation-friendly regulation
technology centres, financing institutions) and other stakeholders (e g. from education, the broader public The report is organised along KETS.
fundamentally new technologies to adopting organisational concepts through learning and copying. History has shown that the emergence of certain new technologies has spurred
more closely linked to technology pushes from KETS-scientific journals, universities and public research institutes-are assessed less often as highly important while competitors
Universities Public research institute manufacturing total R&d intensive industries Note: Multiple sources per enterprise allowed.
uncertainty is reduced typically through learning, standardisation and the experiences made in applying a new technology to various fields of applications.
diffusion of existing technologies, improving skills through education and training, learning from good practice-KETS are more likely to result in a leap upwards in efficiency levels
of a new technology, through learning from using (Rosenberg, 1982) and from a fierce competition among technology producers who are seeking competitive advantages by
can be reinforced by adaptations of the education, innovation, production and policy system to the specific needs of the leading technology sector.
laboratories or universities) and industrial R&d and innovation. An appropriate framework is needed to exchange knowledge between these two sectors,
movers can often gain long term competitive advantages through early learning and reputation building Finally, commercialisation calls for an adequate regulatory framework
supply, and education and training activities (see OECD, 2009c). In some KETS, Member States have developed national technology strategies, particularly in nanotechnology and
industrial) biotechnology. Policies of Member States tend to define country-specific technological priorities within each KET and implement different sets of instrument.
identify the institutional background of an applicant (higher education institution, public sector research institution, private firm, individuals) or the sector affiliation.
learning and innovation Technical knowledge and know-how to enable innovation Capabilities Organisational/Marketing knowledge and
Changsha advanced materials cluster focuses on the integration of industry, training and research, accompanied by active industrial policy
America are public research institutions (universities and governmental laboratories including government agencies. In Europe, the share of applicants from the chemical
followed by a university and a diversified materials producer largely based on chemical technologies. In East asia, the largest applicant is diversified a electronics
The European commission adopted in February 2008 the Code of conduct for Responsible Nanosciences and Nanotechnologies Research 6
Universities Source: modified from Miyazaki and Islam (2007 In addition to this, the composition of public and private funding is also different
coal crisis (1960s) and the oil crisis (1970s) made it necessary to refocus on education and
opportunity is reflected in the high number of involved universities/research centres and interdisciplinary projects (more than 100.
All together, the NRW nanotechnology cluster network encompasses 30 university institutes four research centres, six networks, 16 SMES and six major enterprises.
Each cluster is linked to universities and research institutions in the surrounding area. 11 Over time, the ties between the three excellence centres
Each cluster is embedded in a strong infrastructure of universities and research centres, which builds the scientific foundation for downstream nanotechnology activities.
University institutes SMES Large enterprises Finance Aachen 1 3 10 6 2 0 Muenster 3 1 7 8 1 1
The Ministry for Education and Research also has strong patent laws in place to ensure that utilisation opportunities are realised. 12
The German Federal Ministry for Education and Research supports the development of nanotechnology competence centres by installing sufficient
for universities and nanotechnology firms which seek for funding opportunities on a federal level. 15 A consortium of seven federal ministries developed a †Nano-Initiative †Action Plan
represents and supports universities and firms in their research and development activities. Its goal is to create a competitive and dynamic R&d environment
The focus is to intensify the dialogue and cooperation between universities and industry, to identify markets and technological priorities,
Universities and research institutions building an elaborate research landscape with regional and national networks, focusing on knowledge creation and generation.
All of the three clusters in the network are dominated by the scientific research of universities and the high number of university institutions.
There are a few large nanotechnology enterprises, such as Philips and BASF, which are located within the cluster network to
have been made for years by individual university institutions and nanotechnology companies. In total, there are 30 university institutes, four research centres, 16 SMES, and six
large enterprises present. In addition to this, six different networks and one venture capital firm accompany cluster activities.
sponsors R&d project through its federal ministry of education and research, and on an European level, the European commission funds nanotechnology research through its
consists of the Kyoto University Katsura Campus and the Katsura Innovation Park, which promote and create several university-industry research activities. 26
The Kyoto nanotechnology cluster is embedded further in a system of many other clusters which also conduct R&d in nanotechnology
with the knowledge cluster initiative from MEXT (Japan†s Ministry of education, culture sports, science and technology) to support universities and research institutions in their
research and innovation efforts. 27 More recently (in 2008), the Kyoto Environmental Nanotechnology Cluster was created to solve environmental problems through the application
the cluster consists of the Kyoto University Katsura Campus and the Katsura Innovation Park which promote
and create several university -industry research activities and provide space for nine universities, three research institutions
and 43 industrial and venture companies. The core organisation of the cluster is ASTEMRI Advanced Software Technology & Mechatronics Research Institute of Kyoto.
such as the Kyoto University, the Kyoto Institute of Technology, and the Ritsumeikan University there are many industrial players present, e g
Murata Manufacturing, Shimadzu Corporation, Kyocera Corporation, Omron Corporation etc. Furthermore, the government is represented also in the cluster with the Kyoto Municipal
-NANO societyâ€, where joint seminars for industries and universities are organised Public policy and funding: Nanotechnology in Japan receives major attention from the
between universities, national labs, and regions. 29 MEXT (education, culture, sports, science and technology) and METI (economy, trade and industry) are the main funding ministries
and JSPS (Japan Society for the Promotion of Science), JST (Japan Science and Technology Agency), NIMS (National Institute for Materials Science), RIKEN (Institute of Physical and
MEXT (Japan†s Ministry of education, culture, sports, science and technology) implemented several measures to promote basic nanotechnology research and the development of practical
industry-academia-government, conducting R&d in universities and independent institutions and providing cross-sectional support. 30 Two MEXT actions are worth mentioning regarding
interface between industry, university and government METI (Japan†s Ministry of economy, trade and industry) accompanies cluster development in
In addition to this, it stimulates university-industry collaborations by implementing business incubators and university-industry liaison facilities. 35
Venture capital: In Japan, R&d in nanotechnology is supported also largely by private funding. Venture capital funding accounted for $2. 8 billion in 2004.
universities, research institutions, economic organisation, industrial support groups and the local government in 2003, promoting the technology transfer and commercialisation of
Ministry of education, culture, sports, science and technology) and METI Japan†s Ministry of economy, trade and industry) are the main funding ministries,
infrastructure (universities, labs, etc. and a good connection between the knowledge infrastructure and industry. The cluster platforms have an important function in supporting
Size 3 universities (with 30 institutes), 4 research centres, 16 SMES, 6 MNES, 1 VC firm
9 universities, 3 research centres, 43 industrial and venture firms Classification Developing Developing Infrastructure Strong knowledge infrastructure:
institutions (universities, government labs) and on collaborative research linking science and industry. In addition to R&d funding, governments promote advance in nanotechnology
infrastructure for nanotechnology research and education networks; and support the consideration of environmental, health and safety issues associated with nanotechnology
In North america, universities and other research institutions are the most important group of nanotechnology applicants.
Since education typically focuses on imparting knowledge from specific and established scientific or business fields, people who integrate skills from
17 L'Air liquide FR chemicals 83 17 University of California US research 203 18 SEMIKRON Elektronik DE electronics 79 18 ATMEL US automotive 190
while 1, 200 graduates leave higher education per year. In comparison, the closely related sector of IT and software employs 14,000 people with 2, 200
graduates annually (Innova, 2008 The micro-and nanoelectronic field as one activity in the Grenoble cluster is also related to a
industry and university located on the central campus. 18 joint laboratories have been setup with manufacturers since. 46 The cluster can hence be characterised as a global centre of
universities and research in a collaborative, open innovation environment. This impressively shows the historic development of the cluster not only showing a high concentration of actors
Verimag), 2) a number of prestigious universities and engineering schools including the Grenoble Institute of technology, 3) unique scientific facilities including the Minatec
Firms collaborate with universities and research centres institutionally in the form of Minatec but also informally.
regional authorities, branch organisations, together with universities and research centres join efforts promoting the cluster using the same †pitch†in developing
together research partners from industry, university and public research is hence partly publicly funded. Innova, 2008) Next to that the cluster also benefits from national funds in
to 2, 400 researchers, 1, 200 students, and 600 technology transfer. Minatec campus staff (9
Each year some 6, 000 students and 400 academics and researchers from abroad study or work in Grenoble-Isã re.
campus where public research, university researchers and industry researchers work jointly together creating sufficient scale to work at world leading level
research laboratories and prestigious universities provide a rich pool of leading knowledge and high skill labour supply that innovative firms thrive on.
alliances between the semiconductor industry and Canadian universities and educational institutions helping to ensure the production of well-trained graduates (OCRI, 2006
Short history of micro-and nanoelectronics in the Ontario region The Ontario region has a long tradition in microelectronics with the first firm, Microsystems
fuelled by public investments and research capabilities of the University of Toronto By the 1990s, Ontario was a significant player in the global silicon chip business, with several
research institutes, universities but also research centres of large corporations. These are the Communications Research Centre (CRC),
cluster further benefits from a number of universities, including the University of Ottawa Carleton University, Algonquin College,
and Universitã du Quã bec en Outaouaistd (Ontario 2009 This public research infrastructure is complemented by a number research centres of large
multinationals that also act as anchor firms in the cluster providing an attractive ecosystem for SME.
Micronet but also linking excellent university research with industry. In addition Ontario province operates a Research and development Challenge Fund (ORDCF), the Ontario
investment of $50, 000 to create a partnership with researchers at the University of Ottawa
or owned outright by the university or government agency involved in the project. According to some local actors this potentially inhibits corporate growth since the
Research Centre (CRC), two other NRC institutes and a number of universities. These often collaborate with local firms,
third of all Masters and Ph d. graduates in electrical engineering and computer science from Canadian universities. This concentration is even more visible in the telecommunications
sector, with 90 percent of Canada†s R&d in industrial telecommunications conducted in the region (Wolfe, 2002.
setup by (university) researchers in the past indicating a conducive climate to commercialisation Market failures and drivers for growth
Universities. The Ottawa cluster has a strong specialisation in telecommunications equipment which led to a state of crisis after the dotcom bubble resulted in the closing of a number of
and universities producing high level knowledge However, they also provide stable employment for highly skilled people in the field that can
research base including specific research institutes as well as universities. Furthermore national as well as provincial funds are targeted at specific technology development
initiatives, funding for industry-university collaborations as well as supporting start-up companies. However, no dedicated cluster organisation seems to exist
leading research laboratories and prestigious universities providing a strong high skill labour pool. Its key asset in this respect is the Minatec campus where public researchers, university
researchers and industry researchers work jointly together. A central role for development of the cluster plays CEA-LETI through its Minatec initiative taking the role of anchor
comprising key national research institutes and universities, an entrepreneurial culture, a slightly skilled and stable labour pool, a local lead customer base with many corporate
A very strong science base that in contrast to universities is oriented very application A critical scale of employment having positive effects for the local labour markets by
laboratories, universities/engineering schools Collaborative research environment stimulated by Minatech (industry-research -public triangle Cluster also has an important joint
universities/engineering schools Many R&d facilities of large microelectronic firms Institutions Rules and regulations R&r have a minor role, only recycling laws
researchers and students through general programmes (not technology specific No significant role of collaborative ties
Nortel hires 1/3 of all masters and Phds in electrical engineering nationally Cluster features Large
Tsing Hua University and National Chiao tung University providing ample human resources for the firms located in the park.
Co-location of firms and academic institutions therefore seems to be a promising route to follow, for example in the form of a dedicated science park.
result facilitate experimental learning that can be assumed to be valuable in future technology development efforts.
seven renowned universities in the Cambridge region. Currently, there are more than 250 Chapter 5 Industrial Biotechnology
biotechnology cluster, including universities and supporting activities, employs 25,000 people. 52 The Cambridge biotechnology cluster is served by local support providers and
biotechnology research organisations such as the University of Cambridge, the Institute of Biotechnology and the Babraham Institute.
were founded within the premises of the University of Cambridge. Biotechnology firms have a wide range of choices for biology and chemistry laboratories,
The Cambridge biotechnology cluster has a good balance between academic institutions (e g University of Cambridge), locally established companies (e g.
Cambridge Antibody Technology), companies from overseas (Amgen USA), spin-offs from universities and research institutes (e g.
Akubio Ltd. and spin-offs from biotechnology companies (e g Sareum Ltd. see Walker, 2005. Furthermore, the biotechnology cluster is embedded into a
Since biotechnology activities often originate from university research, the Department for Education and Skills (Dfes) plays an important role in university policy and
funding in relation to biotechnology. Tax breaks and tax credits created through The Treasury are key policies and one of the most significant initiatives in stimulating investments in
research students in universities and research institutes in the UK. Cambridge university receives quite a large share of this budget (160 grants with a sum of £55 million in 2008) for
companies with linkages to university research with private investments. Once the start-ups enter the global market,
The Cambridge biotechnology cluster combines world renowned research universities with important research institutes. Furthermore, Cambridge has established a well entrepreneurial
culture with many biotechnology firms originating from university spin-offs, which were and still are supported by number of incubators and Science Parks
Therefore, Cambridge has established a well entrepreneurial culture with university spin-offs (dating back to the 1980s
institutes, world class universities, intense commercial activity with small start-ups as well as multinational companies, incubators, company creators, science parks, a range of professional
regional universities and public officials at all levels of government. 58 The total market capitalisation is estimated at $144 billion
scientific base (University of California in San francisco, Berkeley and Davis) and the accessibility of venture capital.
University and Small Business Patent Act†(1980. This act promotes the commercialisation of scientific research by giving universities the rights on their patents, thus clarifying IP
ownership among research staff, departments, knowledge transfer offices and universities. 60 59 http://www. oslocancercluster. no/index2. php?
option=com docman&task=doc view&gid=25&itemid=39 60 http://www. berr. gov. uk/files/file28741. pdf European Competitiveness in KETS ZEW and TNO
channeled through universities and research institutes to stimulate innovations in basic research. Also the city of San francisco provides public funds for the creation of labs and
Innovation Research Program (SBIR) financially encourages university faculties to create commercial-oriented spin-offs of their research. 64
During the formation of the cluster, universities in the region tried to a create links to
The UC (University of California) administration set up an initiative called Biostar to promote research collaborations between academics scientists and
top-level research universities and institutions. Many of their scientists founded their own biotechnology companies with their research results,
University). ) Along with a mature infrastructure of bio-savvy law firms, venture capitalists and other support organisations, it remains a biotechnology hotbed for the coming years. 65
university staff. There, the anchor company took the dominant role and was supported by the surrounding university infrastructure.
This development led to a situation that biotechnology firms in the Bay Area were oriented more commercially than firms in Cambridge
universities Availability of public and private research facilities Strong incubator: Babraham Research Campus ERBI: private cluster platform
universities close by Institutions Rules and regulations Cambridge has an advantage over countries such as Germany and the USA because of
giving Universities rights on IP Patent law enhances commercialisation Improved FDA regulation speeds up process
Interactions Strong industry-university linkages Strong relationships locally between researchers (personal relationships Strong links internationally Biostar:
promotes university-industry collaboration Baybio bioscience association: collaboration PPP and VC Strong social networks of university
graduates and ex-employees of large companies that start their own company Capabilities World leading scientists on biotechnology
Very strong position in research development and commercialisation Strong scientific basis 170 university spin-offs (start-ups
Market demand Strategic position in European market Large companies serve as lead customers and finance new developments
Universities and public research organisations play a very prominent role in industrial biotechnology by providing new technological knowledge.
Second, it is important to facilitate the exchange between universities, public research organisations and industry.
and learning from biology how to manipulate and process light. Photonics holds a huge potential †not only for new and even better forms
research institutes and universities called Optechbb. It was founded in 2000 and is part the national association called Optecnet, coordinating nine regional networks in the field of
There are in total four universities in Berlin and Potsdam, including a large university hospital (Charitã), and 10 universities of applied sciences with about
140,000 students. In addition, the region houses more than 70 publicly funded research institutes from one of the four main non-university research organisations (Max Planck
Leibniz, Helmholtz and Fraunhofer. These represent an annual R&d budget of â 1. 8 billion
including 50,000 academic and research staff. 72 Short history of the cluster While the cluster is still in development with the cluster initiative Optecbb founded in 2000
the region has a much longer tradition in optical technologies. Beginning in 1801, glasses for
and Einstein worked on photonic-related issues at the then Berlin University and the newly
-established non-university research facilities in Berlin (Sydow et al. 2007 This development was interrupted by two historic events:
universities and three applied universities with Physics departments or photonics research groups. Additionally, there are more than 20 public non-university research organisations that
have some activities in photonics, ranging from basic research (e g. BESSY and the Max Born Institute) to more applied photonics research (e g.
universities (Humboldt University, Charitã, Free University Berlin, Technical University Berlin) present, supporting the emerging capabilities of small, specialised firms.
University, and the Canadian Defense Research and development Center, Quebec represents a key actor in the Canadian photonics activities (GC, 2010
and training in the field of photonics Short history of the cluster Quebec has a long history in the development of the amplification of light starting with one of
et laser (COPL), the largest university research centre in optics-photonics in Canada to the
Canadian Institute for Photonic Innovations (CIPI), the head of a network of 18 universities that offer technology exploitation and innovation programmes.
largest university research centre in optics/photonics striving to perform both fundamental and applied research, to support industry,
Of the 111 Canadian university chairs in the field of photonics 40 percent are located in Quebec (CIPI, 2010.
Universities and Public research institutes Strong knowledge infrastructure †focused on niche markets Institutions Rules and regulations
well-established field of research at universities and public research centres. A main challenge is to better interlink the two groups of actors.
The University of California is the only organisation from North america that is listed among the top 25 patent applicants in this region.
The Walloon region has 9 universities and 13 higher education colleges with courses related to applied sciences. These knowledge institutes have developed
relationships with the local industries over time, but will still have to adjust their research to
parks which host companies that focus on high tech business-university relationships. These are managed by Universities and local development agencies
There is also a network of business incubators or shared infrastructures located in Universities and/or Science Parks to facilitate start-up companies.
In addition, 3 public training centres and 3 research centres contribute to the knowledge base of the cluster.
These are specialised R&d centres related to material science, biotechnology, nanotechnology and polymers European Competitiveness in KETS ZEW and TNO
The education standards (widely recognised university qualifications) and (technical) training might be also contributing to create shared values and
behavioural patters. It is estimated that the level of productivity of Wallonia workforce in the chemicals industry (hourly productivity levels) is ranked second at the global level), which
training programmes Public policy The Walloon government decided to address the critical situation of international competition
universities and firms; and developing and improving access to vocational training. 86 As a result of the implementation of the new Walloon industrial policy, there is now a specific
incentives (reduced social-security contributions, cash recruitment grants, training subsidies etc.)) 87, support for outstanding scientific research (linkages to Universities), facilitation (if
entitled) to European subsidies, and a personalised and speedy following up from public agencies and regional authorities. 88 89 90
and staff training and consultancy services, support with export plans, and promotion of renewable energy use and environment
In spite that it has been reported that cooperation between firms and universities in the Walloon innovation system is below the European and Belgium average (Biatour et al.
positive interaction between entrepreneurs, Universities, public agencies and private investors in the cluster. In 2002 for instance, Nanocyl was founded as a spin-off from the Universities
of Namur and Liã ge with the support of private investors96 The firm received seed funding
and a long story of accumulation of technological, organisational, management, and engineering capabilities which can be
Finally, a handful (rather small) training centres in plastics and chemistry support competences development of related firms.
and university-industry parks science parks. In addition, Changsha also hosts a number of clusters in the areas of
strengthen the integration of industry, learning and research, at the time it uses and increases
the innovation capacity of the Central South University and Hunan University. 98 97 http://www. fdi. gov. cn/pub/FDI EN/Statedevelopmentzone/Newsupdate/Newsupdatecontent/t20060404 70863. htm
region†s universities and other scientific research institutes to effectively promote the technology breakthrough. The constructions of several platforms (information technology
Changsha is one of the key higher education and research bases in China. There are many new and well established universities.
The universities are expected to function as anchor entities for cluster and regional (innovation) development. Changsha universities also
promote entrepreneurship and new business development (through incubators), assist in technology transfer, and spin-off companies which are established in the university industrial
parks. One example is the firm Boyun New Material Co as a spin-off firm for the
manufacturing of high-performance composite material. 100 Furthermore, there are 45 higher education institutions, 76 special training agencies, over 120
research institutions, 47 national and provincial key labs, 46 academies and 340,000 technological staff. 101 In terms of specialised equipment available to firms in the cluster, the
entrepreneurship of returning students, young Phds and post-docs, with more than 100 SMES created by around 250 young talents), the Hunan Xinjinrong Technical Incubator and the Oak
Chinese universities and research institutes have been encouraged to play a leading role for scientific and technological development linked to economic development through
Interactions between well trained graduates, returning graduates (from abroad), academic entrepreneurs, firm employees, government representatives and strategic investors have
Taijia New Material Science and Technology Co. Funded by returning graduates from abroad it is now a Sino-China joint venture specialised in the manufacturing of composite materials
At the international level, Changsha Universities and research institutions have established ambitious cooperation programmes with top centres in
however, is that the central role of the two major Universities and a number of research
universities and industry, and the strong government guidance in these processes (e g. by deciding who will get funding) is a strength for the Chinese example
such as setting up strategic partnerships with local universities and business, providing most of the research funding, acting as a lead customer,
universities act as anchor entities for cluster and regional (innovation) development, while in Wallonia large firms execute this
universities and colleges for applied science Wallonia has 6 science parks, SPOW Science Parks of Wallonia is network of
higer education institutes and training facilities, research institutes and labs Institutions Highly regulated industry as chemicals play
industry-university collaboration stimulating private and providing public funding for research, development and commercialisation Interactions Not much known on interactions Interaction hindered by old culture and
universities, represent strong innovation skills Market demand 75 percent of output is for export Fast growing cluster with strong export
In Germany, the Federal Ministry of Education and Research, BMBF supports certain fields of material technology and selected main areas of chemical technology in differently oriented
universities and small and medium-sized companies. The latter often do not have the human or financial resources for intensive materials research.
and enable education and further training on a project-specific level (see Schumacher et al. 2007
In Great britain the Associate Programme of the Institute of Materials (Iom) was launched in 1999 with the objective of consulting
Education and collaboration between research institutions and companies play a key role within the action of this programme (see Foresight
technologies, the diffusion of advanced materials generates network and learning effects among users. As a consequence, diffusion of new materials is accelerated when a certain level
information can typically be found among the universities and public research organisations PRO). ) As a result, it is important to facilitate the exchange between universities, PRO and
industry, for example by encouraging the creation of technology transfer offices at the research institutes. Moreover, the functionality of markets for technology can be expected to
At the same time, additional places for students need to be provided in these subject areas Third, AMT are characterised by the emergence of several new platform technologies that are
facilitate experimental learning that can be assumed to be valuable in future technology development efforts. Sustaining production capabilities can
consulting, skills and training, to combine access to external funding (loans), to stress the critical role of human capital in upgrading technology successfully
-operation and mutual learning among SMES. Typically, programmes that focus on smaller European Competitiveness in KETS ZEW and TNO
infrastructure (thick network of world-class universities and research labs for instance) or on the foundations of well established and successful industries.
originated by science and universities, e g. the Cambridge biotechnology cluster and the Grenoble microelectronics and nanotechnology cluster,
mature stages of cluster development, weak links-often through universities and large actors -form an essential link to †the outside worldâ€.
Start-ups, university spin-offs and company spin-offs are important to advance KETS since they are more capable than large
it is observed that investments in higher education in Europe have deteriorated over the last decades, leading to a lower number of graduates and researchers in some fields
of natural sciences. A main challenge is to train students in cross-disciplinary fields which are
particularly important for research in KETS. A lack of skilled people is a severe problem as it
-east Asian countries) to catch up with Western economies in education levels System failures that hinder KET development
and many higher education institutions are not prepared to offer curricula that meet the specific demands of KETS.
opportunities of cross-disciplinary studies are unclear to many students (e g. because commercial applications and thus job opportunities in KETS have yet to evolve),
low perceived attractiveness of such studies and a low number of students European Competitiveness in KETS ZEW and TNO
-Promoting higher education and training in the fields of KETS is essential in order to serve KETS with the skilled personnel they need.
Strengthening cross-disciplinary education is a main challenge here. A likely shortage of skilled labour should be tackled through both
education and immigration policies -A vital venture capital market is important for commercialising research results in KETS
through university spin-offs and other types of start-ups. Above all, venture capital needs a supportive regulatory environment.
stress the role of consulting, skills and training, access to external funding as well as co -operation and mutual learning among SMES
-Policy should also acknowledge the role of lead firms and lead markets in commercialisation KETS.
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