It hires and trains university and college students as student business advisors to provide customised Internet and e-commerce training to SMES.
Irvine University, www. crito. uci. edu Wong, P.-K. and Y.-P. Ho (2004), â€oee-Commerce in Singapore:
GEC Project, CRITO, Irvine University, www. crito. uci. edu World bank (2003), World Development Indicators Database, August 2003
Project, CRITO, Irvine University, www. crito. uci. edu
EUROPEAN COMMISSION Brussels, 11.1.2012 SEC (2011) 1641 final COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT Online services, including e-commerce, in the Single Market
133 The website www. chillingeffects. org, an initiative from several US law faculties and some NGOS, reports on
of the Commission by RÃ seau Financement Alternatif (Belgium), the University of Bristol (UK), the
University of Milan (Italy) and the Warsaw School of economics (Poland 241 Directive 2007/64/EC of the European parliament and of the Council of 13 november 2007 on payment
which include universities, are specialized in online dispute resolution. ECODIR is free of charge for consumers and involves a 3-step process of negotiation, mediation and recommendation.
A case study of buy. com, Green Design Institute at Carnegie mellon University, December 2008 available at:
Bucharest University of Economic Studies, Romania eliza. paicu@yahoo. com Professor Phd Adrian Dumitru TANTAU
Bucharest University of Economic Studies, Romania ad tantau@yahoo. com Abstract Given the limited amount of research written about the open innovation practices of companies located in
innovate with the aid of customers, suppliers, universities, competitors (Kruse, 2012), public research centres, competitors, groups of product users (Duarte and Sarkar, 2011), development
knowledge but proof of enhancing knowledge raised by universities and research laboratories in the innovation process of business actors is relatively scarce
with other enterprises, universities, public research institutes, suppliers, customers and competitors in the EU-27.
co-operation occurred with universities and research institutions (9%)(Mention, 2011 The most important source of external knowledge comes from the customer,
Aarts Emile Eindhoven University of Technology, Intelligent Lighting Institute e. h. l. aarts@tue. nl
George washington University, Washing -ton DC caraye@gwu. edu Chatterjee Kumardev European Young Innovators Forum kumardev. chatterjee@eyif. eu
Curley Martin Intel Labs Europe & National University of Ireland Maynooth, Innovation Value Institute martin. g. curley@intel. com
den Ouden Elke Eindhoven University of Technology, Intelligent Lighting Institute e d. ouden@tue. nl Golebiowska-Tataj Daria European Institute of Innovation and Technology daria. tataj@eit. europa. eu
Huuskonen Mikko Lappeenranta University of Technology & Ministry of Employment and the Economy, Finland mikko. huuskonen@tem. fi
National Chengchi University Taiwan, Department of business Administration yehyunln@nccu. edu. tw Marom Dan www. danmarom. com me@danmarom. com
Pallot Marc Nottingham University Business school marc. pallot@nottingham. ac. uk Rakhmatullin Ruslan IPTS, DG JRC European commission ruslan. rakhmatullin@ec. europa. eu
Rantakokko Mika University of Oulu Center for Internet Excellence Oulu Innovation Alliance mika. rantakokko@cie. fi
Schaffers Hans Aalto University, Center for Knowledge and innov -ation Research (CKIR hans. schaffers@aalto. fi
Turkama Petra Aalto University, Center for Knowledge and innov -ation Research (CKIR petra. turkama@aalto. fi
Valkenburg Rianne Eindhoven University of Technology Intelligent Lighting Institute a c. valkenburg@tue. nl von Gabain Alexander European Institute of Innovation and Technology alexander. gabain@eit. europa. eu
or universities Industrial research is changing and instead of innovation being driven by a brilliant individual researcher, innovation success will be driven by
You get innovation when great universities leadingâ edge science, worldâ class companies and entrepreneurial startâ ups come together. â€
great universities, leading-edge science, world -class companies, and entrepreneurial start-ups come together. Where they cluster together you
University of California, Berkeley, Haas School of Business, recently said that innovation is changing so rapidly that no study can aim to comprehen
University of Chicago Press 9) Rogers, E. M. 1962. Diffusion of Innovations. Glencoe Free Press
Sciences, Lule㥠University of Technology, Lule㥠15) Stã¥hlbrã st, A.,Holst, M. 2012) The Living Lab
Nottingham University Business school marc. pallot@nottingham. ac. uk Use Cases Contacts Logistics Use Case Matthias Kalverkamp
-ers located in universities (academic research groups), industry and government (R & D units or departments in firms and public research
can be found in university, which is a univer -sal knowledge-producing and disseminating institution that encompasses both the arts
-ciplinary research centres, industry-university research consortia, translational research insti -tutes, technology transfer offices in universities
firms and government research labs; business support institutions (science parks, business /technology incubators; financial support insti
university in developing training and research often at the same high level as universities Moreover, a trend towards internal substitu
-tion within spheres was observed (Ranga et al 2008). ) For example, in situations where a local university is involved only marginally in entre
-preneurial activities and links with industry especially small firms, vocational training insti -tutions may take the lead in such interactions
of the local university. Similarly, in the absence of R & D-and technology-intensive companies
across government, university and industry sectors and localities per the quote below †Leydesdorff 2012) complemented and enhanced by a bottom
involvement of universities, engagement of (multi -level) authorities in formulating policies, industry and businesses in developing
university, industry and the bottom-up angle civil society). ) The inter-sectoral and intra-sectoral as
-lars (government, university, industry and civil soci -ety) as well as across sectors and regions would make for more resilient †namely smart,
QH partners (e g. firms, universities, users), the systematic collection and utilisation of user information and the knowledge and capabil
-eral non-university region, can be considered as positioned at the centre of the innovation system
to knowledge production in a university setting i e. academic, investigator-initiated and discipline -based knowledge production.
step, from basic research conducted in universities to the application at firms as experimental develop
important to tie universities and industry, science and technology closer together. The producers and users of knowledge are connected during the whole
A Mode 3 university or higher education sec -tor operates simultaneously in accordance with both the principles of Mode 1 and Mode 2 (30.
-sonnel from universities, or to encourage personnel mobility between firms and universities (Campbell and GÃ ttel. 2005: 168.
Mode 3 also allows for the co-evolution of different knowledge paradigms According to Kuhn (1962), a single paradigm has
In addition to university, industry and govern -ment, Quadruple Helix also adds civil society and a †media-based and culture-based public†as a helix
In 2010 a group of students at Aalto University, just outside Helsinki, embarked on the most
the university. It offers a wide range of services: working space, coaching for budding entreâ
The Saunaâ masters have an understanding of entrepreneurship in advance of their years. They recognise that there is more to innovation than high tech:
the universities (and created Aalto) in an attempt to spur innovation. But it was speeded up
Kajak University offers courses in video games Finns have a comparative advantage in the four things that make for great games †bloodâ
masters talk about IPOS and †massive growth curvesâ€. The company recently moved into new headquarters which, poignantly, used to be Nokia†s R & D centre
promote startâ ups. They are encouraging universities to commercialise their ideas and generâ ate startâ ups. They are telling their schools to sing the praises of entrepreneurship
-tion of university based scientific knowledge following the STI mode of innovation, with industries usually applying practice-based
for entrepreneurial (mode 3) university strategies, where universities take responsi -bility for the Quadruple Helix
•Going Glocal †transnational and higher order learning (L3)( 45) and metrics, measurement management (M3)( 46) for growth?
•Globalisation of universities, industries, and regional policy institutions, i e. all three cor -ners of the Triple Helix, through transnational
†focuses on the traditional role of university research in an elderly †linear model of innov
of †university-industry-government rela -tions†(56)( see Figure 8 •†Mode 3†(57:
Tampere, University of Tampere, Institute for Social Research, Work Research Centre. further references:(16 18)( 19)( 21
of Industry and Higher education, v22 n6 p343†353 December. (further references:(26 25) Carayannis, E g.,
George washington University, WASHINGTON DC caraye@gwu. edu Dr Ruslan Rakhmatullin IPTS, DG JRC, European commission ruslan. rakhmatullin@ec. europa. eu
Higher education provides the human resources to conduct basic research, which is translated in turn to applied research leading to
fiancã, Karl Benz, a university-educated civil engin -eer, talented developer of machines, who was how
-cial university education; that risk taking is a key step towards innovation; that building networks
-class universities, representatives of well-backed -up private foundations supporting first class sci -ence and innovation and acknowledged academics
-ming out of universities (6). Only 0. 0006%of the GDP are placed into VC capital funds in continental
a university professor who also would like to start a company but it will also be different for a publicly
where research, business and higher education come together on topics of societal challenges These ecosystems are not single clusters but net
-ation networks bringing research, higher education and business together †were to become the key operational arms of the EIT.
integrating research, higher education, innov ation and instilling entrepreneurship in this process Their goal is to educate generations of entrepreneur
universities and companies. The entrepreneurial small and early-stage companies try to integrate a fully fledged value chain in this emerging and
-ciplinary universities in its metropolitan area, has become a centre of competence in climate related
faculty across countries and between academia and business as well as the sharing of infrastructure and resources lead to the emergence of hotspots such as
the Open Innovation space at Aalto University, where one of the KIC€ s nodes is housed
universities ranked amongst the best in France. The co-location leverages preexisting large investments to develop national industrial clusters such as Capen
in academia, in particular at technical universities engineering, biomedical universities, causes facul -ties to reflect on how they treat people who are not
streamlined and diverge from the typical scientific path. If professors would like to start companies rather than continue university careers,
should the system punish them, or should they be given a chance to return to academia in 2 to 3 yearsâ€
Business models, Warsaw University of Technology Publishing house 2) Dufour, A.,Carroll, S b. 2013), †Great myths die hardâ€
Aalto University, School of business petra. turkama@aalto. fi Dr Hans Schaffers Research director Centre of Knowledge and
Aalto University School of business hans. schaffers@aalto. fi 79 Innovative Government Leaves Legacy after the Financial crisis
National Chengchi University, Taiwan yehyunln@nccu. edu. tw 90 O P E N I N N O V A t I O N y E A r B o O k 2 0 1 4
make courses from prestigious universities around the world available for all. Therefore access to qual
be imbued of the idea of graduating from university as only the first step in the creation of their future
-cation in the pioneer Aalto University in Europe, as an example of applying criteria of entrepreneur
Universities can perform training tasks to enhance innovative aspects. Entrepreneurship and imple -mentation of innovation may be less risk if rely on
the Israeli and Spanish universities (and surely this can be extrapolated to the great majority of Euro
-pean universities. It will be difficult to convince Israeli students to work in a company, their prefer
ultimately culture is generated in universities Enterprises Enterprises need closest approaches to innovation and change corporate culture to measure success
-fery Stanton, Syracuse University (12) who refers to the Science of Data as an †emerging area of
Aalto University †the forerunner of European university reform to increase societal impact 2011. Available from http://files. openinnovation
-platform. eu/yearbook/service innovation yearbook 2010 2011. pdf 6)( 7) Gantz J.,Reinsel D. The Digital Universe in 2020
University Press. Visit www. cocreationparadigm. com to learn more. The author is very grateful to Richard Straub for both his
Alliance (OIA) with the University of Oulu, Oulu Uni -versity of Applied sciences, VTT Technical Research
Institute, University of Oulu 7) http://www. cie. fi /8) http://realxtend. org/about /9) http://www. oullabs. fi/en
University of Oulu mika. rantakokko@cie. fi 111 Smart Fabric to Big data: from One Innovation to Two Promising Businesses
Lithu anian Sports University (LTU), Softkinetic Sen -sor (BEL), Actimage (LUX), Santech (FRA), Televic BEL), Institut Mines TÃ lã com (FRA), Traxmeet
University of Technology e d. ouden@tue. nl Dr. ir. Rianne Valkenburg Value Producer Lighthouse & Professor
The hague University of Applied sciences Intelligent Lighting Institute@Eindhoven University of Technology a c. valkenburg@tue. nl
Prof. Dr. Emile Aarts Scientific Director Intelligent Lighting Institute@Eindhoven University of Technology e. h. l. aarts@tue. nl
125 Open for Business †Moving from †Knowing†to †Doing†Introduction The crowd-based asset is the new source of in
better now and the universities offer ample amounts of info how the international dealing works.
University of Technology Counsellor, Ministry of Employment and the Economy, Finland mikko. huuskonen@tem. fi
universities and R&d labs for technology scouting and idea sourcing show a higher innovation performance.
in Danish hospitals, including the Glostrup Hospital of the University of Copenhagen. These contacts introduced the founders to the science of sleep and the clinical practice of sleep medic ine.
universities, research labs, and lead-customers. New technologies thus offer opportunities for small firms even in the so-called low-tech industry such as textiles, furniture, bicycles, food, and so on
developed at universities, research labs, or large companies. Finally, small firms must make choices 32
Dingens wanted to collaborate with the University of Hasselt and knowledge partner Sirris to develop a completely new instrument The new barometer should have the same advantages of the
longer be limited to university and corporate spin-offs. Start-ups can use their organizational agility application know-how,
universities or larger, technology-savvy companies. Isobionics illustrates this point. The company took a technology to market that had been abandoned at DSM at a speed that surprised both technology
Examples include newsletters from universities and knowledge centers and publications of Design Vlaanderen, among others.
such as universities, research labs, and knowledge intermediaries. This strong reliance on value chain partners is partially due to the fact that most companies are active in low-and medium-tech industries
such as the Glostrup Hospital of the University of Copenhagen. After setting up an examination board
where universities would be invited to participate in the product days with their own ideas. They would also have access to factory resources
Universities, research labs, crowds of experts, lead users, and knowledge brokers are just a few examples of potential external sources of kn owledge.
new flavors has traditionally been completed with different universities in Europe, with DSM, and with other innovation partners.
including several European universities, research labs, DSM and other value chain partners. The technology licensed from DSM is a technological plat form that can
to universities, technology labs, and commercial partners. Third, DSM was a formidable partner for Isobionics in the further development and continuous technical support of Isobionics†products.
are increasingly aware of the growing technological capabilities of universities, research labs, and high-tech start-ups.
Philips relies recurrently on new technologies from universities, specialized research labs, and high-tech start-ups. The electronic giant endeavors to be preferred the partner for
Partners may be technology partners such as universities, research labs, or other companies but in most cases these are not the most important partners in the network.
institutional sources (universities and university colleges (v), government and public research organizations (vi)), and other available sources (professional
and industrial associations (vii), trade fairs, exhibitions, and conferences (viii), scientific journals and trade/technical publications (ix.
) universities (v; and public research organizations (vi. Collaborative innovation is captured by calculating the average score of the six questionnaire items registering the firm†s use of coopera tive agreements with
The business model ontology †a proposition in a design science approach, Ph d. Thesis University Lausanne, Ecole des Hautes Etudes Commerciales HEC. 173 p;
*RSM Erasmus University E-mail: vvrande@rsm. nl Jeroen P. J. De Jong EIM Business and Policy Research
Hasselt University, Faculty of business Studies E-mail: wim. vanhaverbeke@uhasselt. be Maurice de Rochemont Eindhoven University of Technology
E-mail: m d. rochemont@tm. tue. nl February 2008 *Corresponding author Vareska van de Vrande RSM Erasmus University
Department of Strategic Management and Business Environment Room T7-33 P o box 1738,3000 DR Rotterdam, The netherlands
as startups, universities, suppliers, or even competitors to stay competitive in the long run Open innovation is thus a broad concept,
into research collaborations with universities (e g. George et al. 2002). ) Without academic research outcomes many innovations could not have been realized or would
movement towards open innovation is related to a different approach of universities research labs and companies vis-Ã-vis technology and IP.
public knowledge centers (e g. universities), customers, suppliers, and investors (e g banks, venture capital firms 20 Finally, we looked at the degree firms participate by equity investments in new
The proximity of universities, research labs, large companies and lead users may play a role in the deployment of open innovation in SMES.
Advance, in Challenges to the University, Brookings Institution Press WASHINGTON DC Cooke, P.,2006. Regional Knowledge Capabilities and open innovation:
University Press Cooper, R. G.,Kleinschmidt, E. J.,1995. Benchmarking the firm's critical success
The effects of business-university alliances on innovative output and financial performance: A study of publicly
deindhoven University of Abstract †437 otives and management challenges de Jongb, Wim Vanhaverbekec ochemontd
asselt University, Belgium nology, The netherlands www. elsevier. com/locate/technovation ARTICLE IN PRESS chn innovation practices and whether there is a trend towards
universities, public research organizations, commercial engineers or suppliers Inward IP licensing Buying or using intellectual property, such as patents
University Press, Cambridge Singh, J.,1990. A typology of consumer dissatisfaction response styles Journal of Retailing 661, 57†99
deindhoven University of Abstract †437 otives and management challenges de Jongb, Wim Vanhaverbekec ochemontd
asselt University, Belgium nology, The netherlands www. elsevier. com/locate/technovation ARTICLE IN PRESS chn innovation practices and whether there is a trend towards
universities, public research organizations, commercial engineers or suppliers Inward IP licensing Buying or using intellectual property, such as patents
University Press, Cambridge Singh, J.,1990. A typology of consumer dissatisfaction response styles Journal of Retailing 661, 57†99
in Danish hospitals, including the Glostrup Hospital of the University of Copenhagen. These contacts introduced the founders to the science of sleep and the clinical practice of sleep medic ine.
universities, research labs, and lead-customers. New technologies thus offer opportunities for small firms even in the so-called low-tech industry such as textiles, furniture, bicycles, food, and so on
developed at universities, research labs, or large companies. Finally, small firms must make choices 32
Dingens wanted to collaborate with the University of Hasselt and knowledge partner Sirris to develop a completely new instrument The new barometer should have the same advantages of the
longer be limited to university and corporate spin-offs. Start-ups can use their organizational agility application know-how,
universities or larger, technology-savvy companies. Isobionics illustrates this point. The company took a technology to market that had been abandoned at DSM at a speed that surprised both technology
Examples include newsletters from universities and knowledge centers and publications of Design Vlaanderen, among others.
such as universities, research labs, and knowledge intermediaries. This strong reliance on value chain partners is partially due to the fact that most companies are active in low-and medium-tech industries
such as the Glostrup Hospital of the University of Copenhagen. After setting up an examination board
where universities would be invited to participate in the product days with their own ideas. They would also have access to factory resources
Universities, research labs, crowds of experts, lead users, and knowledge brokers are just a few examples of potential external sources of kn owledge.
new flavors has traditionally been completed with different universities in Europe, with DSM, and with other innovation partners.
including several European universities, research labs, DSM and other value chain partners. The technology licensed from DSM is a technological plat form that can
to universities, technology labs, and commercial partners. Third, DSM was a formidable partner for Isobionics in the further development and continuous technical support of Isobionics†products.
are increasingly aware of the growing technological capabilities of universities, research labs, and high-tech start-ups.
Philips relies recurrently on new technologies from universities, specialized research labs, and high-tech start-ups. The electronic giant endeavors to be preferred the partner for
Partners may be technology partners such as universities, research labs, or other companies but in most cases these are not the most important partners in the network.
institutional sources (universities and university colleges (v), government and public research organizations (vi)), and other available sources (professional
and industrial associations (vii), trade fairs, exhibitions, and conferences (viii), scientific journals and trade/technical publications (ix.
) universities (v; and public research organizations (vi. Collaborative innovation is captured by calculating the average score of the six questionnaire items registering the firm†s use of coopera tive agreements with
The business model ontology †a proposition in a design science approach, Ph d. Thesis University Lausanne, Ecole des Hautes Etudes Commerciales HEC. 173 p;
Engineering, Faculty of engineering, University of Pisa, Largo Lucio Lazzarino 1-56122 Pisa, Italy; Email: a. bonaccorsi
-agement at the University of Pisa, Italy. His main research interests include: the economic analysis of the dynamics of
and empirical analysis of higher education. He has recently coordinated a large project for the publication of microdata
from all European higher education institutions European competitiveness: IT and long-term scientific performance Science and Public Policy August 2011 523
-ence, in both European and US universities, to list the most important technological innovations in the
University research played a key role in the growth of the US computer industry. Universi -ties were important sites for applied, as well as
elsewhere, universities served as sites for the dissemination and diffusion of innovation throughout the industry
-tween IBM and the University of Harvard, which was established in 1939 (Moreau, 1984 Interestingly, as early as in 1946 the Moore
School of the University of Pennsylvania and the US Army sponsored a course on the theory and tech
However, the role of the university was not unam -biguous: in the same year one administrator of the
universities building their own machines, based on Von neumann or Turing architectures The role of universities greatly increased after a
commercial move by IBM. In 1954 IBM delivered the 650, a machine that was installed mainly for
Watson Jr decided that a university could benefit from a discount up to 60%on the price of the 650 if
that university agreed to offer courses in business data processing or scientific computing (Watson 1990). ) This opened the way to a large diffusion of
courses in computer science across US universities Meanwhile, US universities started to be involved in research on the component technologies underly
-ing the computer. Soon after WWII, the University European competitiveness: IT and long-term scientific performance
Science and Public Policy August 2011 526 of Illinois, Harvard and Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) worked on magnetic core memo
convened by F L Bauer from the University of Mu -nich (Germany) in 1958, and COBOL was promoted
by a group of universities and computer users which held a meeting at the Computation Center of the
University of Pennsylvania in 1959. In turn, the LISP LANGUAGE was developed by John Mccarthy at MIT in 1958 (Moreau, 1984), PASCAL was devel
French researchers mostly based at the University of Marseille (Colmerauer and Roussel, 1996. As with
Universities did not play a direct sci -entific role in this massive bottom-up effort, but were a crucial element for the mass culture that
-uate studies at universities, but benefit from an envi -ronment in which new ideas are generated and
and desires of (â€) university researchers eager to investigate new computing techniques Throughout its entire life, IPTO followed the rules
Universities changed their role in the early histo -ry: in the heroic period until 1959 they were directly
Two university groups were active in that period in the UK, one at Man -chester and another at Cambridge.
with the Manchester University Group and delivered in 1951. A commercial computer, known as LEO was installed at a company in 1951, well before
strong linkages with universities, particularly in Paris and Grenoble, and PROS The link between academic research and indus
universities were involved directly in the produc -tion of prototypes. With the advent of the 1960s
bring a diminishing role for universities, but a re -design or their role around fundamental research
-working Phd students, brilliant undergraduate stu -dents, rather than of corporate laboratories. The role of abstraction is crucial here.
the Moore School and the University of Iowa from Aiken and Wilkes to Algol, the vast
it cannot be said that university research has been the source of most inventions, it has played a promi
We identified the location of the universities at which top scientists received their academic degrees Such information can be retrieved with certainty
for 855 scientists in the case of Phd, 457 for the Master degree and 641 for the Bachelor degree (see
US universities gave the degree to future top scientists in 76.5%of observable cases against 16.6%in the case of Europe.
concentration can be observed in the case of Master degrees. These degrees require a great deal of inter
Master and Phd degrees as intermediate steps towards a scientific career In evolutionary terms, it seems that the US aca
end of the 1960s the US universities had already granted 89 Phd degrees to those that eventually be
in the number of degrees in US universities, while the same is not true for European universities.
This finding sheds light on the puzzle identified in the section of this paper on †Technological competitive
Area Phd degree Master degree Bachelor degree Number%Number%Number %USA 654 76.5 332 72.6 363 56.6
universities were able to attract 207 high potential candidates(+55%with respect to the previous decade), against only 37 at European institutions
those universities that granted undergraduate and postgraduate degrees to those brilliant scientists in their early days.
the distribution of universities, because we are more interested in understanding the dynamics at the ex
Therefore we select the top 15 universities in which the top scientists have received their degree
at each of the three levels of education, i e. Phd Master, and Bachelor (see Table 4), in descending
The top 15 universities represent 56.2%of all universities granting a Phd to the 855 top scientists
for which we are able to reconstruct the information In turn, the top 15 universities represent 47.1%of
those granting the Master degree (n=457) and 41.3%of those granting the Bachelor (n=641.
The differences in the coverage rate shows that postgrad -uate education is concentrated more than undergrad
Nevertheless, the top 15 universities cover between 40%and almost 60%of the sample, a rea
universities, with two Europeans featuring in the 10th position (Cambridge, UK) and 14th position Edinburgh, UK) and a Canadian one in the 13th po
As stated, the first 15 universities at -tract 56.2%of all scientists for whom we have full
Table 4. Ranking of top 15 universities granting Phd, Master and Bachelor degrees to top scientists in computer science
Phd degree Master degree Bachelor degree Number%Number%Number %MIT 82 9. 6 47 10.3 45 7. 0
University of California at Berkeley 69 8. 1 27 5. 9 20 3. 1 Carnegie mellon University 43 5. 0 13 2. 8
Harvard university 35 4. 1 14 3. 1 25 3. 9 Cornell University 27 3. 2 12 2. 6 11 1. 7
Princeton university 26 3. 0 15 2. 3 University of Illinois 22 2. 6 12 2. 6
University of Michigan 20 2. 3 9 2. 0 18 2. 8 University of Cambridge 16 1. 9 18 2. 8
Yale university 15 1. 8 7 1. 5 14 2. 2 University of Wisconsin 14 1. 6 10 2. 2
University of Toronto 13 1. 5 7 1. 5 9 1. 4 University of Edinburgh 13 1. 5
University of Pennsylvania 13 1. 5 University of Massachusetts 8 1. 8 University of Washington 7 1. 5
University of California at Los angeles 7 1. 5 Indian Institute of technology 7 1. 5 34 5. 3
National Taiwan University 13 2. 0 California Institute of technology 12 1. 9 Technion Israel Institute of technology 11 1. 7
Brown University 10 1. 6 Total number of observations 855 457 641 Note: universities not in USA are in italics
European competitiveness: IT and long-term scientific performance Science and Public Policy August 2011 533 almost one-third of the total.
Third, a mutual rein -forcement mechanism is clearly in place. Brilliant students target top universities because there they
have the opportunity to meet and to work with the best scientists. Top universities actively target tal
-ented students to confirm their reputation. Postgrad -uate education seems to be a promising candidate to
explain the success of the scientific careers of these scientists. Understanding the extraordinary success of the US Phd model in turbulent fields is therefore
a key for policy learning When examining the distribution of universities granting the Master degree the top list is slightly dif
-ferent. There are a few new entries from the USA e g. University of Massachusetts and University of
California at Los angeles), but the most interesting new entry is the Indian Institute of technology which is not a single institution but an umbrella
organization for several universities The situation changes quite drastically when we move to the Bachelor degree, the entry point for stu
-dents considering a career in computer science. In this list the Indian Institute of technology ranks se -cond, contributing with 34 undergraduate students to
the flow of future star scientists. Interestingly, here we find many more universities outside the USA
from Europe (Cambridge), Taiwan (National Taiwan University), Israel (Technion Institute of technology and Canada (Toronto Our interpretation is as follows.
The talent pool for a career in computer science is worldwide. En -try points are good universities offering strong
basic scientific knowledge but also giving brilliant students sufficient motivation to emerge. After that stage, however, future top scientists must be chan
-nelled into foreign universities, most of which are in the USA. In preparing for this migration of
talent, Asian countries have been more strategic investing heavily into the preparation of undergrad -uate students to be selected
European universities, in contrast cultivate the ambition to organize graduate educa -tion, particularly Phd education, in isolation.
from internal Master programmes, which in turn se -lect bright students from the Bachelor. With few
exceptions, European postgraduate education in computer science is not globally competitive. If it were competitive we would see more students mi
Table 5. Distribution of Phd, Master and Bachelor degrees by discipline Phd degree Master degree Bachelor degree
Number%Number%Number %Computer science 327 38.2 156 34.1 102 15.9 Engineering 116 13.6 113 24.7 165 25.7
Again, the European higher education systems are less equipped to deal with this kind of cognitive complementarity.
surprising that top universities try to attract top sci -entists, what is impressive is the extreme concentra
The first 15 universities account for 1051 moves, or 33.7%of the total number of
Even more impressive, the first four universities namely MIT, Stanford, Berkeley and Carnegie Mellon, account for 544 moves,
at just these four universities. Alternatively, assum -ing multiple career steps within these four universi
-ious universities on the career decisions of top scien -tists. We find this finding impressive and highly
to academic careers and investigate four career tran -sitions: from postdoctoral researcher to assistant professor (or researcher in other academic systems
competition among universities to attract the best young researchers, then the best young professors Without strong competition among universities
Table 7 Ranking of top 15 affiliations (only academic positions) in total number of positions over career
University of California at Berkeley 102 Carnegie mellon University 102 University of Illinois 59 University of Maryland 58
Cornell University 52 University of Washington 45 University of Pennsylvania 44 Harvard university 44 Princeton university 44
University of Texas 44 University of Massachusetts 42 Brown University 41 University of Toronto 34
Note: universities not in USA are in italics Table 8 Descriptive statistics of duration of stay in academic
career positions Duration of career steps Number Min Max Mean Std dev As postdoctoral researcher
68 0 7 1. 81 1. 499 As assistant professor 412 0 36 4. 89 5. 33
As associate professor 336 0 40 5. 39 4. 175 As full professor 348 0 44 11.51 9. 05
European competitiveness: IT and long-term scientific performance Science and Public Policy August 2011 536 career paths would be slower on average.
It is be -cause competitors are ready to offer good prospects that all universities, subject to their budget con
-straints and reputation layer, try to compete. On the other hand, top scientists have large opportunity
costs: if they lose opportunities the value they lose is very large, so they will not accept offers that they
consider below their opportunity cost. The higher the reputation, the larger the opportunity costs In other words, we may think of this career pat
-tern as a dynamic equilibrium, in which all talented scientists are allocated to universities that make best
use of their talent, and all universities allocate their budget in the best possible way.
If top scientists re -ceive better offers, they move. If universities in -crease their reputation
and have extra budget, they try to improve the quality of their potential candi -dates.
-teraction between universities and companies, and between companies and large (public and private customers. On the side of industry,
Universities can contribute to this ecology in two main ways: by producing top class research
Implications for higher education policy The interesting question is now whether this search regime has been compatible with the institutional
features of European higher education in the relevant historical period, and why. The answer is negative A search regime characterized by a turbulent rate of
our data, top scientists move from the university that awarded their Bachelor degree to the USA, fight to
enter top class universities as students, change affili -ations several times in their career, combine differ
universities fight to attract the best students and try to offer the best conditions to professors.
-pean universities have not been attractive for top computer scientists and increasingly have also be -come less attractive for students.
-reputed old European universities, just a few have international visibility at the top These findings support the importance of foster
-ing the reform agenda for European universities This will require dedicated efforts to build up globally competitive Phd programs, more transpar
put pressure on European higher education systems in the near future Implications for innovation policy In the relevant historical period most European
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