INNOVATIVE ICT SOLUTIONS FOR YOUTH EMPLOYMENT DIGITAL INCLUSION T e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o N d e v
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment February 2014 This report was developed and published by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU),
and grew out of the youth employment and entrepreneurship initiative between ITU and Telecentre. org Foundation.
and social inclusion by addressing challenges surrounding integrating young people into the employment market, highlighting innovative approaches and uses of ICTS,
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment iii Lead authors: Chris Coward is the cofounder, Principal Research Scientist,
she worked as a research assistant employing large-scale data analysis tools to analyse the impact of foreign-born workers in the US economy.
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment iv Foreword Today's youth face enormous challenges finding a job
That's why it's imperative that we take concrete steps to ensure youth have meaningful work opportunities
many governments are enacting policies aimed at encouraging more graduates to become job creators, not job seekers.
and I am delighted that this report was developed in response to the Youth employment and Entrepreneurship initiative between ITU and Telecentre. org Foundation.
I am pleased that BDT has made these resources available to youth worldwide in our new Youth employment and Entrepreneurship Resources Database at www. itu. int/ITU-D/youth.
and reshaping pathways for employment and entrepreneurship. It is a dynamic environment where governments and other stakeholders need to be more adept at developing
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment v Table of contents Page 1 Introduction...1 1. 1 Organization of report...
2 2 Youth and unemployment...3 2. 1 A global crisis...3 2. 2 The skills mismatch...
10 3 New employment opportunities Macro sectors...11 3. 1 Agriculture...12 3. 2 Health...13 3. 3 Offshore services...
15 4 New employment and entrepreneurship opportunities Emerging sectors...17 4. 1 Online job services and job matching...
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment vi Page 6 Entrepreneurship skills and support...35 6. 1 Entrepreneurship skills...
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 1 1 Introduction Youth make up 17 per cent of the world's population and 40 per cent of the world's unemployed, according to the International labour organization.
High youth unemployment not only hampers economic growth, for youth it can be a debilitating experience that affects their desire
and provide them with better opportunities for employment. Against this backdrop ongoing advances in information and communication technologies (ICTS) are transforming old sectors
This transformation is effectively making digital literacy a prerequisite for both wage employment and creating one's own business.
Accordingly, the primary aim of this report is to spotlight emerging trends, focusing on new work opportunities, new skills,
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 2 adequately represent all of these in a report of reasonable length.
It is hoped that this database will provide youth with a valuable asset in their efforts to secure meaningful employment and entrepreneurship opportunities.
Chapter 2 presents data on the state of youth unemployment and underemployment, illustrating the scale of the challenge
covering new employment sectors, new skills, and new ways of learning. Chapter 4 identifies and discusses a range of emerging work opportunities, from microwork to app development,
that are a direct result of advances in ICTS and global internet diffusion. Many of these areas are experiencing exponential growth.
Chapter 8 discusses the role of government in supporting youth employment and entrepreneurship. Chapter 9 offers some concluding thoughts. 1. 2 Notes and limitations Each one of these chapters could occupy many books,
One of these is a working definition of employment and entrepreneurship For purposes of this report a World bank categorization is applied.
It includes wage employment, self employment, and farming. Under this categorization, entrepreneurship is a form and subset of self employment.
Self employment, though, can be a double-edged sword. Many businesses in developing countries are started not to exploit Digital opportunities:
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 3 business opportunities but because the owners cannot find satisfactory jobs. 2 In fact,
most micro-and small enterprises in developing countries are just forms of survivorship, with limited chances to grow. 3 This definition is intended not to diminish the importance of self employment.
It is crucial for job creation. Entrepreneurship, on the other hand, adopts Schumpeter's idea of an entrepreneur as one who is dynamic and willing to take risks to exploit existing business opportunities
and create new ones. The Global Entrepreneurship Monitor4 the largest ongoing global study of entrepreneurial dynamics in the world measures the multiple phases of entrepreneurship.
and unemployment Around the world youth disproportionately suffer from the malaise of unemployment. The scale of the problem is immense
This chapter provides data and context about youth unemployment, and discusses the primary causes of this acute state of affairs. 2. 1 A global crisis Currently,
6 While the global youth unemployment rate had fallen to 11.6 per cent in 2007 from 13.1 per cent in 2002,
even in countries where unemployment is low, youth unemployment is twice the national average or greater.
Young people are three times more likely to be unemployed than their parents. 8 However, official unemployment rates mask greater challenges,
Opportunity Entrepreneurs in the Informal Sector, 2009, http://works. bepress. com/mohammad amin/15.3 World bank World Development Report 2013:
It measures entrepreneurship through both surveys and interviews to field experts, conducted by the teams of each country. 5 World bank.
Jobs. 6 International labour organization,"Global Employment Trends for Youth 2013,(Geneva: International Labour Office, 2013), 1. 7 International labour organization,"Global Employment Trends for Youth 2013,3. 8 Jenny Marlar, Global Unemployment at 8%in 2011:
Youth are three times more likely than older adults to be unemployed,(Gallup. com, April 17, 2012), www. gallup. com/poll/153884/Global-Unemployment-2011. aspx.
Digital opportunities: Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 4 Underemployed youth is triple the unemployment rate. 9 These are predominantly youth who work in the informal sector, facing low wages, no benefits,
and a higher probability to be laid off without any type of compensation. Many of these are subsistence jobs,
For example, Sub-saharan africa has a youth unemployment rate close to 11 per cent, but three out of four workers are engaged in the informal sector.
Although these jobs count as employment, they do little to contribute to an individual's well-being and a country's economic development.
In addition 621 million youth are idle known as NEET (not in education, employment, or training. Rates of idleness vary across countries
and gender among 15 to 24 year-olds, ranging between 10 per cent (for men in Brazil, India, Pakistan,
10 Protracted adverse labour market conditions have led youth to give up completely their job search or seek additional education.
Global youth unemployment and unemployment rate, 1991 2013 Source: International labour organization (ILO) 11 9 Mona Mourshed et al. Education to Employment:
Designing a System that Works,(Washington, D c.:Mckinsey Center for Government, 2012), www. improvingthestudentexperience. com/library/general/Educationtoemployment. pdf 10 World bank.
World Development Report 2013: Jobs,(Washington, D c.:World bank, 2012), 6, DOI: 10.1596/978-0-8213-9575-2. 11 International labour organization,"Global Employment Trends for Youth 2013,8.
Digital opportunities: Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 5 Figure 2: Unemployment rates by age range Source:
Gallup 2. 2 The skills mismatch In addition to the protracted economic crisis from which many countries are still trying to recover,
a troubling trend has emerged that experts call the skills mismatch. The skills mismatch is where overeducation
and increasingly with skills obsolescence brought about by long-term unemployment. 12 This situation has multiple implications for youth.
It renders solutions to the employment crisis more difficult to find, and in the case of overqualified youth society is losing their valuable skills
and the United states) only 43 per cent of employers said they could find employees with the right skills. 14 This mismatch between
what employers are looking for in new workers and the skills young people possess is particularly wide in theoretical and hands-on training, problem solving,
and computer literacy. 15 The unemployment situation varies significantly between developed and developing countries, and among and within regions.
In general, in the developed world long-term unemployment among youth is becoming acute resulting in high levels of dissatisfaction and a lack of trust in socioeconomic and political systems.
meaning they are unemployed, in irregular employment most likely in the informal sector, or neither in the labour force nor in education or training. 16 12 Ibid.,
1. 13 Ibid. 1. 14 Mourshed et al. Education to Employment, 10 15 Ibid. 36 16 International labour organization,"Global Employment Trends for Youth 2013,2.
Youth More likely to Be unemployed and Underemployed Among those in the Labour force%Unemployed%Underemployed%Employed full time for an employer 15-to 29-year-olds 15 26 43 30-to 49-year-olds 5 13 46
50-to 69-year-olds 5 13 36 Based on surveys in 148 countries and areas in 2011-GALLUP http://www. gallup. com/poll/153884
/Global-Unemployment-2011. aspx Digital opportunities: Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 6 Figure 3: Youth unemployment rates, by region Source:
International labour organization (ILO) 2. 3 Regional trends: Developed countries The youth unemployment rate in 2012 is estimated at 18.1 per cent. 17 The situation has improved not in recent years with the number of unemployed youth increasing by more than 2 million from 2008 to 2012.
By the second quarter of 2012, youth unemployment surpassed 15 per cent in two thirds of developed countries. 18 Figure 4:
Youth unemployment rates, 2008 and 2012 (second quarter,%)Source: International labour organization (ILO) 19 17 Ibid. 3. 18 Ibid.
4. 19 International labour organization,"Global Employment Trends for Youth 2013,11 Youth unemployment rates 2000 and 2007 2016, by region(%)2000 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
2012p 2013p 2014p 2015p 2016p WORLD 12.7 11.6 11.7 12.6 12.7 12.6 12.7 12.7 12.7 12.7 12.7 Developed Economies & EU
13.5 12.5 13.3 17.3 18.1 18.0 18.0 17.7 17.2 16.5 16.0 Central & Southeastern Europe (non-EU) & CIS 20.0 17.5 17.0
20.5 19.4 17.6 17.5 17.6 17.5 17.5 17.5 East asia 9. 3 8. 0 9. 1 9. 3 8. 9 9
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 7 Youth not engaged in employment, education, or training (NEET) is one of the main challenges policymakers in developed economies face.
they are likely to lack the life skills required for formal employment as well as the social networks needed to obtain new opportunities.
when young people stay disengaged from school and work. The costs of NEET youth alienation from the European labour market shows that absorbing just 20 per cent of this population into the labour market would save nations in the European union more than EUR 21 billion a year collectively. 22 In the United states
the estimated social cost for each disengaged youth amounted to USD 37 450 per individual per year. 23 These costs include lost earnings, public expenditures on health, crime,
and victim costs, among others. 24 The quality of youth employment has declined. Youth increasingly find themselves in nonstandard jobs, such as temporary employment and part-time work.
Countries like Spain and Ireland have recorded increases in the youth part-time employment rate of 11.8 and 20.7 percentage points respectively between the second quarter of 2008 and 2011.25 One out of three youth
state that they opted for temporary work because they could not find a permanent job,
a proportion that has been rising since the economic crisis started. 26 2. 4 Regional trends: Developing countries The labour market in the developing world is highly diverse
and can range from the prevalence of selfemployment and farming to the coexistence of traditional and modern modes of production. 27 Nearly half of the jobs in the developing world are in the informal sector.
youth unemployment is still alarming in many countries, such as South africa (above 40 per cent since early 2008). 28 20 International labour organization, Global Employment Trends for Youth 2012 (Geneva:
International Labour Office, 2012), 31.21 International Youth Foundation, Opportunity for Action: Preparing Youth for 21st Century Livelihoods,(Baltimore:
and Working conditions, Young People and NEETS in Europe: First Findings,(Eurofound, 2011), 5. 23 Clive R. Belfield, Henry M. Levin, Rachel Rosen, The Economic value of Opportunity Youth,(Washington, D c.:
Corporation for National and Community Service and the White house Council for Community Solutions, 2012), 2. 24 Ibid, 15.25 International labour organization,"Global Employment Trends for Youth 2012,21. 26 Ibid, 23.27
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 8 2. 4. 1 Latin america and the Caribbean In Latin america and the Caribbean, youth unemployment has declined recently
Since 2003 the youth unemployment rate has followed a rollercoaster pattern, with the most recent two years from 2010 to 2012 marking a decrease from 15.4 to 12.9 per cent, according to the ILO.
The youth unemployment rate varies among countries, but in all cases it surpasses that of adults.
such as in Argentina and Brazil. 30 The youth unemployment rate is significantly higher among Latin american women.
and the difference is largest in the Southern Cone countries. 31 This difference reflects how many employers continue to offer certain jobs only to men,
as they believe hiring women will entail labour costs due to maternity leave. Low quality schooling and high dropout rates supress youth employment.
According to the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean, completing a high quality secondary education is an important threshold for increasing the odds of obtaining a quality job. 32
and 30 to 80 per cent of students performed at the lowest level in all subjects. 34 Employment opportunities do not necessarily increase with higher levels of education.
Chile, and Peru there exists a higher concentration of unemployment among youth with secondary education than either primary
or advanced education. 35 This situation reflects a skills mismatch wherein there is stronger demand for workers with a college education than those with secondary education. 2. 4. 2 Arab States Youth unemployment rates in the middle East continue to be the highest in the world.
The 2012 youth unemployment rate was estimated at 28.3 per cent in the middle East, and 23.7 per cent in North africa. 36 Labour market conditions for young people remain dire,
despite advances in educational attainment over the past two decades. 37 Gender disparities are also common in this region,
with 42.6 per cent of young females unemployed, compared to 24.5 per cent among males. 38 29 International labour organization,"Global Employment Trends for Youth 2013,18. 30 Ibid. 31 International labour organization, Decent
Work and Youth in Latin america,(Geneva: ILO, 2010), 18.32 International Youth Foundation, Opportunity for Action:
Preparing Youth for 21st Century Livelihoods, 2. 35 International labour organization,"Global Employment Trends for Youth 2013,18. 36 ibid.
4. 37 International labour organization,"Global Employment Trends for Youth 2012,17. 38 International labour organization,"Global Employment Trends for Youth 2013,19.
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 9 Youth face an underdeveloped private sector and a growing informal sector.
or underemployed in the informal sector. 40 Informal employment in the middle East, at about 67 per cent of the workforce, is higher than that in other middle income regions. 41 As a result,
young people in the middle East are likely to enter the labour market through the informal sector, and then transition to public or private jobs. 42 Formal employment in the Arab States is associated strongly with public sector jobs.
Young people are more likely to look for employment in the public sector because these jobs offer higher pay, better benefits, fewer working hours, and job security.
However, jobs in this sector are contracting. Meanwhile new jobs available in the private sector are filled not as youth continue to pursue public sector jobs.
and South Eastern europe and CIS The overall youth unemployment rate for the region has fallen, but this decline masks disparities among and within countries.
the youth unemployment rate for the region has declined to 17.9 per cent in 2012.44 In some countries the youth unemployment rate is very high (e g.
For example, in Azerbaijan, youth unemployment has declined from 18.4 percent in 1999 to 11.0 per cent in 2010;
In the Russian Federation, youth unemployment in Moscow was 5 per cent, compared to 51.3 per cent in Chechnya
and 86.7 per cent in Ingushetia. 45 The situation of the youth labour market is in many ways different to that in Latin america and the Arab States.
and for skilled blue-collar workers. 46 The region has high numbers of university graduates in fields highly desired by employers today, like science, technology,
and math. 47 This mismatch is demonstrated in surveys indicating high rates of employer dissatisfaction with the availability of skilled workers, 40 per 39 World bank, The Road Not Traveled:
Preparing Youth for 21st Century Livelihoods, 5. 44 International labour organization,"Global Employment Trends for Youth 2013,17. 45 Ibid.
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 10 cent in one 2008 survey. 48 Educational achievement as measured by the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) indicates that the education system in this region is performing adequately at imparting basic skills,
the youth unemployment rate is lower in Asia than in other regions. South Asia (9. 3 per cent) and East asia (9. 5 per cent) have the lowest regional youth unemployment rates
while Southeast asia and the Pacific had a slighter higher rate (13.1 per cent. 50 Young Asians face high poverty levels and a large informal sector.
and ILO estimates that 70 per cent of the working poor youth are engaged in the agricultural sector. 51 Jobs in this sector are usually informal, with no benefits, protection,
and training as only 6 per cent of urban youth and 3 per cent of rural youth attend these institutions at the secondary level. 55 2. 4. 5 Sub-saharan africa The youth unemployment rate
in Sub-saharan africa is 11.8 per cent with large variances in the continent. 56 Countries with the highest youth unemployment rates include South africa, with over half of the youth population unemployed, Namibia (58.9 per cent in 2008
The World bank, 2012), 4. 49 Ibid, 5. 50 International labour organization,"Global Employment Trends for Youth 2013,13-15.51 International Youth Foundation, Opportunity for Action:
Preparing Youth for 21st Century Livelhoods, 10.52 Ibid, 11.53 International labour organization,"China Youth employment Report,"(Geneva: ILO, 2005). 54 UNESCO, Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2010,(Paris:
Preparing Youth for 21st Century Livelhoods, 12.56 International labour organization,"Global Employment Trends for Youth 2013,20. 57 Ibid.
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 11 Africa has the highest rate of working poor, estimated at 40.1 per cent in 2012.58 More than three out of four workers are engaged in the informal sector. 59 This is far high than all other regions except South Asia.
As a result, African youth are typically found in vulnerable employment conditions. ILO estimates that an average of 2. 1 million young people will be entering the labour market every year between 2011 and 2015,
highlighting the need for new opportunities beyond the traditional sectors. Figure 5: Informal sector employment shares, by region (2009) Source:
ITU World Telecommunication/ICT Indicators database Educational attainment among youth is chronically low. In Sub-saharan africa just 77 per cent of students enrol in primary education, the lowest in the world.
The picture worsens as the education level increases. Only 41 per cent of boys and 32 per cent of girls in Sub-saharan africa enrol in secondary education. 60 In the short-term,
young people are likely to continue earning their living in the informal sector. 3 New employment opportunities Macro sectors The diffusion of ICTS is occurring across all economic sectors and job categories.
In today's job market basic ICT skills are considered essential for people entering the workforce and for those trying to find a better job.
20.59 International labour organization,"Global Employment Trends for Youth 2012,26. 60 UNESCO Institute for Statistics,"Global Education Digest 2011,"(Montreal:
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 12 This chapter explores how ICTS are transforming three sectors:
ICT-led transformations of all workforce sectors should improve the employment and entrepreneurial prospects of youth with ICT skills.
it is easiest to quantify the opportunities in the offshore services sector where the majority of employees are youth. 3. 1 Agriculture The agriculture sector is becoming more knowledge intensive,
and as this trend intensifies so too do opportunities for ICT-related job creation. Upgrading workforce skills is becoming a key factor in the competitiveness of the agriculture sector.
and evaluate system performance more effectively. 66 The Community Knowledge Worker (CKW) programme is an initiative of The Grameen Foundation in Uganda that features a network of information intermediaries using mobile technology to deliver agricultural information
The Grameen Foundation works with local agricultural research organizations and other experts to curate content
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 13 3. 2 Health Healthcare is a global multi-trillion dollar industry that is undergoing massive changes as a result of ICTDRIVEN innovations.
Technology is used to ease the flow of information between health workers and patients outside regular office visits. 3. Improve diagnosis and treatment:
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 14 Figure 6: Technology-enabled programmes, by purpose Source: World health organization, 2012 THE WHO study further found that 27 per cent of the programmes profiled by CHMI featured ICTS in a prominent role.
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 15 THE WHO study also reveals many programmes that face important barriers. 71 Problems with end-user acceptance of the technology may be the result of lack of familiarity with the technology
. 74 This industry offers a good salary, career development opportunities for graduates and professionals, and the opportunity to incorporate into the labour market marginalized groups like rural women or unemployed youth.
Offshore services can also be performed via microwork and crowdsourcing channels as described in the next chapter.
BPO is a diverse category that contains activities related to the management of enterprise resources (ERM), human resources (HRM),
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 16 Firms or countries tend to follow any of the five following trajectories
Most workers are likely to require specialized training in order to fill the knowledge gap between local education systems
had achieved significant growth with 25 000 employees in 65 centres, compared to 9 000 employees each in El salvador
and Guatemala. 79 Since these countries principally serve the Hispanic market, the use of Spanglish by clients requires call centre agents to also understand English.
Thus all three countries offer programmes to improve employees'English competencies. 76 Ibid. 150.77 Ibid.
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 17 4 New employment and entrepreneurship opportunities Emerging sectors The increasing adoption of ICTS in everyday life,
and the growing marketplace for digital goods and services, are creating opportunities for youth to find employment that transcend traditional paradigms.
and carry out work is changing. Instead of looking in the local newspaper, youth around the world browse web-based job listings to find work.
Those with limited access to the internet carry out their job searches at public venues telecentres, libraries,
The very notion of the work place now reaches far beyond the local which has great implications for young people that are challenged to find employment in their own communities.
New approaches to outsourcing like crowdsourcing and microwork are providing young people worldwide with task
-and project-based work opportunities-many of which are restricted not to highly skilled developers, but can also extend to semiskilled and low-skilled workers with access to a relatively basic digital infrastructure. 80 The global increase in the use of mobile technologies is playing a key role in expanding employment opportunities for youth.
Great potential for employment growth derives from a demand for services enabled by mobile phones. 81 Young people can now find
and carry out work, launch their entrepreneurial endeavours and even get paid via their cell phones.
Young people are doing mobile microwork, and also being contracted to carry out market research in their own communities.
and how the emerging app economy 83 might generate new employment opportunities for young people around the world.
This chapter explores a range of emerging opportunities involving ICTS and youth employment and entrepreneurship. First, the ways in which young people find work through digital job matching services is covered,
followed by new opportunities for ICT enabled employment. The chapter then turns to the growing app industry, its potential for employment,
and some of the issues related to becoming an appbased entrepreneur. This includes a need for people with skills to develop accessible software and websites for people with disabilities.
and sales are explored also as they continue to be a source of employment for young people around the world.
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 18 4. 1 Online job services and job matching While it may be skilled common for,
educated workers to use existing web-based job-matching services to find job openings, many workers may not have access to job postings on the internet
and may lack the social networks to find out about work opportunities. Searching for informal sector jobs often occurs through word-of-mouth,
which limits people to their immediate social group. Employers may find it hard to identify lower-skilled workers for entry-level jobs in developing countries as many of the job matching services target more qualified candidates.
Mobile phones are becoming an important tool for job seekers and there are a number of job-matching services in the developing world that simplify the job search process.
These services are proving to be very beneficial for people with basic literacies but who may not possess the knowledge to create a résumé
'or access online resources. 84 Souktel's Jobmatch Program connects thousands of job seekers in the Arab States with employers who are looking for staff through an easy-to-use SMS and mobile audio technology.
Employers enter job openings into Souktel's database. Young job seekers use their mobile phones to create
and update personal profiles in Souktel's system. When position openings match job seekers'qualifications they are notified via text message.
Souktel's mobile-based job search functionality is especially useful in the middle East and Africa where young women may not have the same freedoms to seek employment through conventional means,
and men largely dominate internet cafes. Website: www. souktel. org 4. 2 Microwork and crowdsourcing As discussed in chapter 3,
such as paid employees. 85 84 World bank, Information and Communications for Development 2012: Maximizing Mobile, 75.85 Crowdsourcing, Wikipedia, https://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Crowdsourcing, accessed on December 3, 2012.
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 19 Figure 8: Crowdsourcing vs. Microwork Source: Author elaboration and Howe (2008) Crowdsourcing Crowdsourcing business models benefit individuals with higher-level technical skills.
With some models, multiple workers complete a single task that has been broken down into small units (similar to microwork,
Other models are qualified based on matching workers with a particular project; workers will then complete the project individually or as part of a team.
Most workers are compensated via electronic payment systems, such as Paypal. Crowdsourcing is becoming increasingly popular as a way for employers to instantaneously increase their workforce without the investment
and commitments associated with hiring full-time employees though, as critics point out, this also enables companies to avoid providing social benefits such as healthcare for these workers.
The Crowdsourcing Examples Wiki maintains a comprehensive list of businesses, sites, and forums that use crowdsourcing. 86 Crowdflower Crowdflower is one of the largest crowdsourcing platforms,
offering a range of services from product categorization and labelling for major online retail and auction sites like Amazon, ebay,
and Taoboa, to customer database management, to content creation. Human labelling of products and search results is time consuming,
and the work needs to be completed quickly in order to maximize sales. Crowdflower uses crowdsourcing to harness a round-the-clock workforce that spans more than 70 countries, multiple languages,
and can access up to half a million workers to dispatch diverse tasks and provide near-real time answers.
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 20 Microwork Microwork is a series of small tasks that have been broken out of a larger business process
Microwork is considered the smallest the most granular unit of work in a virtual assembly line. 88 It also requires the lowest level of skills.
Microwork works in tandem with crowdsourcing. Granular tasks are distributed via aggregators to workers across geographic boundaries,
using the internet or mobile phones. Workers are paid small amounts of money for completing each task.
Microwork favours tasks that cannot be automated readily and that can be completed in a few seconds by a worker without special skills or training,
like tagging products on an e-commerce site. Referred to as a kind of digital blue-collar work,
microwork requires little training, and many microworkers are located already in the developing world. Microwork benefits workers in developing countries,
especially women and young people who tend to experience higher unemployment and underemployment and could benefit from flexible income-generating opportunities. 89 The microwork market is growing rapidly.
The World bank estimates that the global microwork market generates between USD450 million to USD900 million annually
More than 1 million workers earned a total of USD 1 billion to USD2 billion in the past 10 years. 90 There are a number of organizations that are taking a double bottom line approach to microwork employing people with limited
opportunities for sustainable employment as principal workers in business process outsourcing centres to provide high-quality, information-based services to domestic and international clients.
The challenge is designed to encourage people to submit innovative ideas for microwork projects to aid digital job creation in developing countries.
https://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Microwork, accessed on December 3, 2012 89 World bank, New Frontiers and Opportunities in Work.
ICT is Dramatically Reshaping the Global Job market (ICT Policy Notes, World bank, June 2012). 90 Ibid. 91 Monitor Group
Job creation Through Building the Field of Impact Sourcing,(Rockefeller Foundation, 2011), www. rockefellerfoundation. org/blog/job creation-through-building-field.
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 21 Samasource is a nonprofit organization that brings digital work opportunities to people around the world.
Workers develop capacity, including computer skills and English. Website: www. samasource. org 4. 3 Apps development There is speculation regarding how the growing trend of apps development will generate new employment opportunities for young people around the world.
The rapid rise of smartphones, tablets, and social media, and the applications-apps-that run on them,
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 22 Jobs in the app economy can be categorized as follows: IT-related jobs that use app economy skills the ability to develop,
Non-IT jobs (such as human resources or marketing) which support app developers in the same company.
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 23 Figure 9: Global map of app trade routes Source: Developer Economics 2012 For developers focusing on in-region, for-region development, the opportunity may lie in addressing market gaps in app categories in their own country.
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 24 The World bank Bank's infodev programme, in collaboration with the Government of Finland and Nokia, has established a network of five mlabs in Armenia, Kenya, South africa, Pakistan, and Viet nam.
as well as help developers and entrepreneurs to connect with potential investors, experts, and public sector leaders. The mlabs are complemented by eight mhubs,
The goal for the 2012 competition was to catalyse the growth of Africa's early-stage start-ups to address the issue of youth unemployment across the continent.
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 25 winners receiving incubation, financial, and other forms of support. 99 This is a model that many other countries can adapt as contests have become a very popular way to stimulate ICT innovations (see section 6. 3). These efforts are extremely important
Accessible ICTS have the potential to provide persons with disabilities unprecedented levels of access to education, skills training and employment,
cultural and social life of their communities. 100 There are extensive examples of how persons with disabilities have used ICTS to enjoy meaningful employment,
and represent another significant source of digital employment for young people. Gaming platforms also rely on the outsourcing of small tasks through third-party gaming services like Crowdflower.
Third party gaming services have enabled thousands of young people from modest backgrounds to create employment for themselves as digital entrepreneurs.
low-skilled workers in China and Viet nam earn their primary income by outsourcing their services to gaming platforms. 102 The third-party online gaming services segment consists mainly of activities known as gold farming 103 and power
People in China and in other developing nations have held full-time employment as gold farmers. 104 Power-leveling is using the help of another,
and the company assigns an employee to play the character for the customer until a desired level is reached. 105 Lehdonvirta and Ernkvist.
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 26 4. 6 Mobile phone repair and computer assembly Mobile phone repair as well as computer maintenance and assembly continue to be important areas of youth job
training and employment in many regions around the world. In cities throughout the developing world, the ICT and electronics markets where mobile phones are sold
and repaired serve as many people's first interactions with technology as well as a huge source of employment and entrepreneurship.
There are countless initiatives that offer youth skills training in device repair, local employment opportunities, as well as business training for local micro enterprises.
ATEDEC focuses its efforts on youth in certain neighbourhoods of Kigali where many are suffering from unemployment, delinquency, and drug abuse.
atedec. wordpress. com 4. 7 Green jobs There is increasing consensus in the development community that the global environmental crisis is an opportunity for employment in
and lift tens of millions of workers out of poverty. 106 A recent OECD report argues that promoting ICT skills in the green and smart economy pays a double dividend by encouraging job creation
and human resources required to implement ICT strategies towards‘greener'and more resilient societies at the international,
The report states that key sectors will benefit the most from job creation including forestry, agriculture, building, transport, services, administration and renewable energy. 109 106 International labour organization, Working Towards Sustainable Development Opportunities for Decent Work and Social Inclusion in a Green
Economy,(Geneva: International Labour Office, 2012). 107 OECD, ICT Skills and Employment: New Competences and Jobs for a Greener and Smarter Economy, OECD Digital economy Papers, No. 198,(OECD Publishing, 2012), http://dx. doi. org/10.1787/5k994f3prlr5-en
. 108 Angelica Valeria Ospina, The Outcome of Rio+20: An ICT Perspective on‘The Future We Want,'Notes on ICTS, Climate Change and Development, http://niccd. wordpress. com/2012/06/27/the-outcome-of-rio20-anict-perspective-on-the-future
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 27 Employment growth in the renewable energy sector alone is projected to be impressive for the coming decades.
Other areas of employment in the green economy that involve a range of ICTS from geographic information systems to satellite imagery
accounting for some 7 per cent of all formal employment. 112 110 United nations Environment Programme.
Investing in Energy and Resource Efficiency,(UNEP, 2011). 111 OECD, ICT Skills and Employment: New Competences and Jobs for a Greener and Smarter Economy. 112 United nations Environment Programme, Transition to Green Economy Could Yield up to 60 Million Jobs, UNEP News Centre, May 31
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 28 4. 7. 2 Green jobs for youth The dialogue around ICTS and the green economy has centered largely on food security, sustainable agriculture, and energy efficiency.
however in the context of the 2012 Rio+20 conference on sustainable development, youth advocacy groups lobbied that young people should be seen as an asset for a green economy that would in turn generate youth employment. 113 Youth have expressed a strong interest
youth and young students from some universities are preparing for the expansion of green jobs to increase our employment and youth employment rates. 115 Paulo,
experts have developed new literacy frameworks in order to describe and delineate other types of ICT skills. These go by such names such as digital literacy, information literacy, ICT literacy, media (or multimedia) literacy,
What Are the Up-and-coming Areas for Youth employment in Your Country? UN World Youth Report Website, last modified on December 29, 2011, www. unworldyouthreport. org/index. php?
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 29 a variation of ICT skills that is becoming increasingly important for some careers.
in combination with ICT skills, are deemed necessary for employment. 5. 1 Computer literacy Computer literacy refers to the ability to use computers and related technologies, from end-users to ICT professionals.
hospital employees must be able to use medical records systems, order supplies, manage appointments and perform other routine tasks on a computer that used to be done on paper.
Even in many jobs that do not entail contact with a computer employers are screening for basic computer skills as a minimum qualification for employment. 117 An increasing number of non-IT positions also expect people to have advanced more skills
An analysis of frameworks,"(European commission, Joint Research Centre IPTS, 2008). 117 Author Chris Coward's interviews in southern Viet nam of several light manufacturing facilities revealed that employers
required job applicants to have computer skills even though they would not use computers in their tasks.
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 30 5. 2 Digital literacy Most of today's attention around ICT skills is focused on the concept of digital literacy.
has undertaken extensive work around digital literacy. In its 2013 report they propose a comprehensive framework that exemplifies the types of competencies many experts note are required to be digitally literate. 118 Figure 10:
Digital competence framework Dimension 1 Competence areas Dimension 2 Competences 1. Information 1. 1 Browsing, searching
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 31 Second, being digitally literate involves much more than having technical skills.
and when not Understands the dynamics of collaborative work and of giving and receiving feedback Skills examples Is able to use the collaborative features of software packages
Each of the 21 competences contains examples of its relevance to people in typical work situations.
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 32 All of these distinctions have important implications for digital literacy training.
Advanced by the Mozilla Foundation in collaboration with global experts web literacies refers to not only being able to read the web
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 33 Figure 12: Web skills/Competencies/Literacies grid EXPLORING CREATING CONNECTING PROTECTING BEGINNER Browser basics (e g.
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 34 5. 4 Complementary skills The discussion in this chapter so far has focused on the ICT-related skills required for meaningful participation in society as well as work.
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 35 Learning and innovation skills: creativity and innovation; critical thinking and problem solving;
Finally, many organizations that provide employability training have developed a range of complementary services aimed at improving the employment prospects of their clients.
employee connection services; information on local labour markets; sector-specific training, often in collaboration with industry; language training, especially English. 6 Entrepreneurship skills and support It is recognized widely that entrepreneurship is a necessary ingredient for stimulating economic growth and employment opportunities around the world.
In developing countries successful small businesses are the primary engines of job creation, income growth, and poverty reduction.
The Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) estimated that 388 million entrepreneurs were engaged actively in starting and running new businesses in 2011 around the globe,
and 165 million of them were young early-stage entrepreneurs between the ages of 18 and 35.126 Considering staggering global youth unemployment levels,
much hope for youth lies in their ability to become job creators rather than job seekers.
This chapter addresses the skills and attributes necessary to become an entrepreneur, and the types of support needed to foster young entrepreneurs.
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 36 Business incubators and accelerators are emerging around the world seeking to emulate the successes of Silicon valley.
there are a number of entrepreneurial skills that are key to helping young people create employment opportunities for themselves
Good Practices in Local Youth Entrepreneurship Support,"(OECD Local Economic and Employment Development (LEED) Working papers 11,2010), www. oecdilibrary. org/content/workingpaper/5km7rq0k8h9q
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 37 Figure 14: Core entrepreneurial skills and attributes132*English continues to be recognized as key for conducting business
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 38 Important skills for digital entrepreneurs In addition, digital entrepreneurs also require skills in a variety of areas related to business communications, customer relation management
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 39 Micromentor is an initiative of the nonprofit humanitarian agency Mercy Corps that offers free online guidance to entrepreneurs
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 40 turn to crowdfunding as one of their primary sources of investment capital.
source feedback and meet experts. They can also receive dedicated mentorship support and open a round of funding.
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 41 6. 4 Toolkits and training programmes There are many digital resources designed to help young entrepreneurs that have been created by the major software companies, many in conjunction
Other mobile payment processors that work with mobile devices, such as Square147, are also making business transactions easier for young entrepreneurs. 143 Small Business Toolkit
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 42 Providing access to market information has long been a goal of many initiatives,
including entrepreneurship skills, ICT training, apprenticeships, business training, funding and/or mentorship, among others. These comprehensive programmes offer integrated services for young entrepreneurs with the aim of facilitating as much as possible the arduous process of starting a new business.
employment and entrepreneurship. Through Youthspark, Microsoft will dedicate the majority of its cash contributions to nonprofit organizations that serve the youth population around the world.
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 43 A study looking at learning spaces and the influence of ICTS identifies six trends as the hallmark of the learning experience of and with ICTS:
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 44 Figure 15: Story of Kelvin Doe Source: Authors 7. 1 New learning models New technologies are changing how learning
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 45 Figure 16: Blended learning and ICTS Source: Authors The blended learning process relies on digital environments called Learning Management Systems (LMS.
Students have the option to present their work using the technology for example, instead of writing a paper or report,
There are some exciting examples of universities organizing contests with Phd students who present their scientific work using video
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 46 Blended learning has gained popularity mostly in European and North american high schools, colleges and universities,
and it currently works in 27 countries, through 53 partner institutions, reaching Anglophone, Francophone and Lusophone African students.
www. avu. org One appeal of the blended model for youth and lifelong learners is the flexibility it offers to combine work and study.
Authors 151 International Labour Office, Apprenticeship in the Informal Economy in Africa,(Geneva: ILO, 2008.
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 47 Prominent and emerging models of self-directed learning include open universities, open course ware (OCW), open educational resources (OER), and massive open online courses (MOOCS.
Experts think that MOOCS, OERS, and OCW constitute a disruptive technology in education. MOOCS are becoming vehicles for unrestricted
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 48 Similar services continue to grow as universities and other educational institutions seize the power of ICTS
It informs the work of MOOCS OCW and other open access pedagogical exercises. MOOCS for instances have drawn on such connectivist pedagogical principles as:
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 49 Figure 18: Social capital and collaborative/peer learning Source:
Authors In the context of youth employment, it is important to consider the benefits that participating in collaborative learning can offer.
It can also result in increased connections and contacts with peers and experts in the field of interest;
A number of initiatives have been created to help employees get the required ICTS skills on the job. These initiatives are designed to prepare youth for a better and more productive work experience.
The initiatives driven by private sector, civil society and international agencies offer training opportunities, internships, apprentice programmes, and mentoring.
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 50 work alongside more experienced workers they acquire and develop many of the same ICT
Students are paired with a mentor/s and given exposure to real-world software development scenarios and the opportunity for employment.
and vocational training centres. With the advance of new learning models described above, youth are taking learning to places like technology hubs, co-working spaces,
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 51 A report prepared for the European commission in 2008 predicted some of these changes by arguing that the emergence
A co-working space is shared a work environment where members have access to facilities such as a desk, meeting space, office equipment, kitchen and other amenities.
Most of these spaces offer classes in how to use the equipment and work with various mediums (wood
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 52 7. 4 Repositories, games and mobile resources Using online channels to learn
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 53 7. 4. 3 Social media Social media are used extensively for learning as well.
Education experts call this connectivism, where knowledge isn't a set of isolated facts to be memorized.
with ongoing research being undertaken to understand what works, the conditions that contribute to successful outcomes,
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 54 There is an opportunity for public access points, such as telecentres, libraries,
For employers, certificates remain an important mechanism to assess the credentials of potential job candidates. Companies require evidence that new employees possess the skills needed for tasks that they will perform in their jobs.
Many types of entities issue certificates. Educational institutions, from private institutes to public universities, are the traditional purveyor of diplomas and certificates.
Employers assign great weight to such certificates when the credentialing entity is recognized well known and in the country for high quality education and rigorous testing.
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 55 The European Computer Driving Licence is an international computer skills certification programme.
The programme consists of series of modules to build different levels of computer skills from basic to advanced that will prepare people for work or studies.
Figure 20 shows how Mozilla Open Badges work. As depicted, the learner is at the centre of the system.
Learners collect badges in a backpack where they can be displayed online for potential employers and others to view.
and other metadata that can be useful to employers to understand, for example, precisely what skills have been learned, a level of granularity that is unavailable in other forms of accreditation.
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 56 Figure 20: How Open Badges work Source: Mozilla Open Badges175 8 The role of government In a statement released for International Youth Day 2012, the UN Secretary-general,
Ban Ki-moon describes youth as a transformative force, who are creative, resourceful and enthusiastic agents of change, be it in public squares or cyberspace.
deadend work and record levels of unemployment. 176 Youth unemployment and underemployment are at a record high.
employment, and entrepreneurship. The examples are the result of a combination of factors: deliberate, and in some cases unanticipated, multi-sectoral (governments, private sector,
partnerships across sectors to spur innovation, economic growth and employment. International agencies have played a vital role by bringing attention to the urgent needs of youth,
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 57 This chapter looks at the role of governments in advancing policies, programmes and strategies for youth employment and entrepreneurship.
It is concerned especially with the school to work transition, an important period in the lives of youth.
and (5) enacting policies that boost employment and entrepreneurship opportunities. 8. 1 ICTS in education The opportunities for learning
traditional models of education are not adequately preparing students to meet the demands of a changing job market. 177 The report emphasizes that formal education remains the primary vehicle for improving the supply of skills needed for driving innovation,
Many experts have linked the limitations of the educational systems to a lack of real integration of ICTS in education.
and Taiwan rank high for their achievements in ICT in education programmes and support of sciences and technical innovation. 181 In the rest of the region a significant amount of work is needed still.
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 58 programmes in Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Cambodia, India, Laos, Pakistan, and Viet nam designed to support the integration of ICTS in education are starting to show results. 182 The importance of government coordination Research reveals that many ICT
coordinated approach across relevant ministries. 184 A national strategy that guides the work of multiple ministries enhances complementarity of efforts
and reduces redundancy. In some countries ministries of labour telecommunications, youth or human development, education, social development and even industry work together to identify common areas of interest
and develop targeted activities. 185 The following examples show the initiatives deployed in two countries,
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 59 8. 2 ICT skill development in non-formal educational settings The examples from Uruguay and Estonia fall within the formal education systems.
often sanctioned by authorities created to guide the work of education granting organizations and institutions.
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 60 At the same time, it is important for governments to recognize the growth
and other alternative certification systems. 8. 4 Public-private partnerships One of the chief complaints from employers is that they cannot find qualified labour to fill the vacancies.
when they are qualified. 197 This skills mismatch is a leading cause of the youth unemployment crisis. Establishing channels for dialogue among industry leaders, policymakers, academia,
and labour policies that responds to the needs of the market and spurs innovation. Models of such dialogues can be found in Singapore
and have dedicated budgets for apprenticeship, job placements, and other programmes. Civil society organizations can be involved as well.
In the United kingdom, the National Apprenticeships Service has developed a three-way partnership with QA Apprenticeships and Cisco Apprenticeship to offer high school graduates three-year apprenticeship opportunities with CISCO. 199 In Jordan the Ministry of Social Development is responsible for a programme designed to provide marginalized youth with training
and job opportunities in private sector institutions. Youth gain real work experience and on-the-job training through this programme. 200 In Malaysia, the Penang Skills Development Centre
Jobs. 198 OECD, OECD Science, Technology and Industry Outlook 2012.199 Cisco, QA Apprenticeships, http://apprenticeships. qa. com/employers/corporate-bespoke-apprenticeships
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 61 Another area for government-private sector partnership is job placement.
In the apprenticeship examples above, participants are remunerated for their work and also have the opportunity to study part-time.
Often, when businesses offer apprenticeships, internships or any other form of on-the-job-training opportunity, they limit their commitment to the duration of the programme.
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 62 Foster innovation through contests and competitions. This can be accomplished by partnering with other actors such as donor agencies, corporate businesses,
ICTS, employment, and entrepreneurship are characterized by rapid change and innovation. Mainstream economic sectors from agriculture to healthcare are witnessing an explosion of new ICT-enabled applications,
Whereas basic computer skills and knowledge of productivity applications may still qualify a person for routine office work,
co-working spaces, hackathons, apprenticeships, and networking events represent just a few of the ways people learn,
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 63 and have driven the explosive expansion of social media and other web 2. 0 applications.
and positioned to seize new employment and entrepreneurship opportunities? The report has outlined a number of strategies pertaining to the role of government.
Public-private partnerships can further advance youth employment through training internships, and job placement programmes. Policies and programmes to support entrepreneurship require another level of dedication.
Community organizations also have an important role to play in equipping youth with the relevant skills and connecting them to employment and entrepreneurship opportunities.
and support governments in implementing youth employment and entrepreneurship strategies, while development agencies and foundations can provide financial support and expertise.
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Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 69 Glossary Accelerators For-profit incubator that support start-ups with funding and other services in exchange for equity.
such as finance, human resources, and customer services. Codefest An event where technical people convene to write computer code.
Connectivism A network-based pedagogy that informs the work of MOOCS, OCW and other open access initiatives.
Enterprise resources management (ERM) A business method that addresses an organization's relationships with all of its constituencies (customers, partners, suppliers, employees, etc..
with class time devoted to discussion and group work. Geographic information system A system for capturing, manipulating, analyzing,
and/or other experts come together to collaborate and produce software projects, apps, and other solutions.
Innovative ICT solutions for youth employment 70 HTML Hypertext markup language (HTML) is the main markup language for creating web pages
Human resource management (HRM) The management process of an organization's human resources, encompassing employee recruitment, selection, assessment and other functions.
Information technology Outsourcing (ITO) Refers to the outsourcing of computer or internet related work, such as programming.
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