National, sectoral and technological innovation systems: The case of Taiwanese pharmaceutical biotechnology and agricultural biotechnology innovation systems (1945 2000) Chao-chen Chung1 1manchester Business school, University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9pl, UK.
Present address: 10f.7, No. 57, Ln. 136, Xuefu Rd. Tamsui Dist.,New Taipei City 251, Taiwan (R. O. C.;
Email: chaochen. chung@gmail. com This paper explores the dynamics of the configuration of the national,
and differences across countries the approach illustrates how the institutions and mechanisms of a nation support technological and industrial innovattio within its borders (Nelson and Rosenberg 1993;
Technological generatiion diffusion and utilization are at the core of the analysis. Comparing the energy innovation systems of Germany, Sweden and The netherlands,
C.-C. Chung has tried also to link the relationships within a sectoral innovation system to a country's international performannce as well as a sector to the technological opportunities which can be mobilized to develop new products and processes for that sector.
which differs from the experiences of Western countries. Moreover the Taiwanese government has implemented not a‘set of policies'towards biotechnology,
Moreover, since the government of the ROC moved its central governnmen from China to Taiwan in 1949,
) Besides manufacturing intermediaries, some local firms imported higher-end intermediaries from countries, such as Japan and Germany,
and moved their pharmacies from China to Taiwan, did Taiwan start to use Chinese herbal medicines.
all the companies producing Chinese herbal medicines followed the regulations of the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA).
To comply with the US FDA regulations, each new herbaceeou medicine was made by a single composition extraacte from a particular herb.
since the knowledge accumulation of biopharmaceuticals in Taiwan was too weak to compete with developed countries,
) A group of Taiwanese scientists trained in US universities introduced modern molecular biotechnology to Taiwanese universities in the 1980s.
Taiwan. 279 RTDI policies copied from foreign countries or copied from another NSTIS will find it very difficult to appropriattel support the development of a specific NSTIS.
the governmeen of the ROC lost its battles with the Chinese Communist party in China. In 1949, the Chinese Communist party successfully set up the central governnmen of the People's republic of china (PRC) in Beijing, China.
In the same year, the central governmeen of the ROC was moved to Taipei, Taiwan. 4. The Chinese have used herbs as medicines and health food for five thousand years.
The knowledge also spread to adjacent countries including Japan and Korea. Compared with herbal medicine,
Kaohsiung Medical University and China Medical University. 7. The majority of universities doing pharmaceutical research were the public universities.
Boschert, K. and Gill, B. 2005)‘ Germany's agri-biotechnology policy: Precaution for choice and alternatives',Science and Public policy, 32: 285 92.
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(JRC-IPTS), Seville, Spain; and Center for Strategic Studies and Management (CGEE), SCN Quadra 2, Bloco A, Ed. Corporate Financial center, 11andar, Sala 1102, CEP 70712-900, Brazil 2manchester
cristianocagnin@gmail. com A strong research and innovation policy discourse has emerged in recent years around the need to address‘grand challenges',particularly at EU level.
which are recognised hardly in the EU's existing innovattio policy instruments, in order to effectively reorient the EU's innovation systems towards grand challenges.
Keywords: innovation systems; grand challenges; european union; foresight; technology assessment. 1. Introduction Recent years have seen a great deal of discussion on how science,
This new orientation is perhaps nowhere more in evidence than at the EU level, where grand societal Science and Public policy 39 (2012) pp. 140 152 doi:
and articulation of grand challenges at the EU level will mobilise Member States to better synchronise their STI policy instruments,
the supporting roles that FTA might play, especially in relation to newly established EU instruments. Reflecting the above considerations,
Section 6 discusses the associated implicattion for international EU research and innovation collaborration the degree to which recent developments cover the identified needs in the reorientation and governing of innovation systems and STI policies,
There are distinct differences in actors and relations-shaping institutiion between countries and sectors, and in the way they perform.
Indeed, expected system elements might be completely absent in some national settings particularly in less developed countries and/or weakly developed or dysfunctional in others.
C. Cagnin et al. 6. Implications for European collaborative programmes This section examines some of the recent STI policy initiatiive of the EU that seek to better orient policy agendas towards grand challenges
Addressing grand challenges is at the core of EU policies for research and innovation as illustrated by the latest EU strategic policy documents.
At the same time the Europe 2020 Strategy notes that a partnership approach should extend to EU committees, to national parliaments and national, local and regional authorities,
and intensity required to tackle grand challennges Current EU programmes fall short in attracting and engaging certain stakeholders like businesses (Annenberg et al. 2010),
ERA NET PLUS and Article 185.4 JPIS go beyond existing relevant schemes by implementing joint research programmes towards real public-to-public partnerships between Member States and the EU (ERAC-GPC 2010.
which is a longstanding feature of EU research and innovation policies. In particulla the Joint Technology initiatives (JTIS), 5 having evolved from European Technology platforms,
EU) under a coordinated approach (through joint programming for example) to ensure the coordination and complementarity needed in regional, national and EU-level efforts to tackle grand challenges.
Additionally, the role of FTA in developing and mobilising resources becomes relevant in identifying the most relevant actors
By bringing together relevant stakeholders, EU instrumeent can be a means to enable different parties to learn with one another
Table 2 summarises the ways FTA could be integrated into some of the EU instruments discussed above
and the Table 2. FTA roles in innovation functions and their integration in EU instruments Innovation system function FTA roles Integration of FTA in EU instruments Facilitate experimenttatio
and impacts of grand challenges as well as their possible solutions Informing role of FTA can be embedded within EU instruments in the steps of challenge/problem identificatiion prioritisation of associated themes and areas for research,
while also bringing public concerns and interests into debates Structuring role of FTA can be enabled within EU instruments
and priorities Informing role of FTA can be embedded within EU instruments in the steps of challenge/problem identificatiion
Current EU programmes and initiatives mainly exploit the informing role of FTA in knowledge development and in providing guidance for direction or prioritisation of research areas and themes.
or launched new initiativves such as the Lund Declaration11 that shall be the basis for designing the EU's future policies for research and innovation.
Article 185 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European union (ex Article 169 of the Treaty establisshin the European community) enables the EU to participate in research programmes undertaken jointly by several Member States,
nanoelectronics (ENIAC) and fuel cells and hydrogen (FCH) as well as the Future Internet Initiative. 6. See<http://cordis. europa. eu/fp7/jtis/about-jti en. html>accessed 19 dec 2011.7.
See<http://www. se2009. eu/polopoly fs/1. 8460! menu/standard/file/lund declaration final version 9 july. pdf>accessed Dec 2011.
<http://netwatch. jrc. ec. europa. eu/static/download/workshop april 2011/Report%20strategy%20workshop%20jp%20and%20itss20instruments. pdf>,accessed 11 oct 2011.
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-Straße 1, 1220 Vienna, Austria 2malta Council for Science and Technology, Villa Bighi, Bighi, Kalkara KKR 1320, Malta 3impetu Solutions, Vi'ctor
Andre's Belaunde, 36-4c, 28036 Madrid, Spain 4zhaw Zurich University of Applied sciences, Institute of Sustainable development, Postfach, CH-8401 Winterthur, Switzerland*Corresponding author.
The need to transform current systems is heightened by emerging global trends, in particular democratic crises in many societies worldwide, the growing political and economic power of Brazil, Russia, India and China,
A third model, more accessible to countries and organisations with limited resources, is the network model
ETEPS, EPTA Network, Eurasian Virtual Centre, Network TA in Germany, Austria and Switzerland are among the more conventional networks.
We can conclude that a substantial benefit can be derived from such networks, in particular for smaller countries or countries with a less developed foresight and anticipatory intelligeenc culture in general.
Recent experience from Germany'Warnke (2011) Focuses on deliberate design of transformations from viewpoint of post-Foresight phase
Moreover, they conclude that foresight exercises carried out in smaller countries require international support. International cooperaation in particular when assisted by FTA networks,
These carry out their work in open networked mode, sharing informatiio at international level with their counterparts in other countries and also internally within the country, with government, business, academia and the public.
See<http://foresight. jrc. ec. europa. eu/fta 2011/Programmeandpapers. htm>accessed 15 december 2011.2. A f ifth possible way of social organisation would be the solitary person who escapes from coercive or manipullativ social involvement altogether.
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2008)‘ Challenging Europe's Research Rationales for the European research area (ERA)',Report of the ERA Expert Group, EUR 23326 EN.
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Giving innovation a central role in European policy',Farhorizon project report.<<http://farhorizon. portals. mbs. ac. uk/Portals/73/docs/Farhorizon%20dynamising%20inno vation%20policy. pdf>accessed 15 dec 2011.
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Coping with a fast-changing world. 165
Orienting international science cooperation to meet global‘grand challenges'Michael Keenan1,,*Paul Cutler2, 3, John Marks4, Richard Meylan2, 5, Carthage Smith2 and Emilia Koivisto2, 6 1directorate for Science, Technology and Industry, OECD,
journals. permissions@oup. com (121 members, representing 141 countries) and International Scientific Unions (30 members.
CGIAR grew out of the international response to widespread concerns that many developing countries would succumb to hunger.
It was unprecedented an initiative involving thousands of scientists across more than 60 countries. It provided major new scientific insights,
This 13-year project coordinated by the US Department of energy and the National institutes of health aimed to discover all the estimated 20,000 25,000 human genes
Additional contributions came from Japan, France, Germany, China and others. Beyond these institutional and, in some respects, top-down examples of international science cooperation, the vast majority of international linkages have been initiated by individual scientists on an ad hoc basis. 2. 2 Contemporary international science cooperation
expanding its scientific reach through cooperation agreements with countries across the globe. Regional initiatives, particularly the development of a transnational European research area, are having a signifiican effect on international science cooperation (European commission 2008.
Strong regional alliances are also developing in Latin america and the Asia-pacific region. Whilst such regional actions are dictated frequently by economic interests,
Whilst several countries such as Brazil, China and India are making rapid progress (Royal Society 2011
There remain a large number of poorer countries where investment in science is negligible (UNESCO 2010.
These inequalities are reinforced by a net outflow of trained scientists from poorer to richer countries.
This is a particular challenge in times of economic constraint where countries look to science to address their immediate needs for national growth.
Related to this are issues around intellectual property regimes in different countries and restrictions on access to data for science.
The outcome of the web consultation was 174 separate ideas for key drivers from 82 individuals from more than 30 countries.
At one end of this axis, countries have oriented a nationnall outlook and tend to look inward
At the other end, countries have a global outlook and favour international cooperattio when problem-solving.
This is also likely to have impacts on those countries with limited scientific capacity at present. International collaborative research infrastructures:
and how committed countries will be to them are key factors in determining the strength of international science.
of labour leads to intense specialisation of countries'economies Governments compete to host the R&d facilities of multinationals through large R&d investments Public science focused on basic research that multinationals are less likely to perform themselves Strong global networks
and instead serves powerful national militaryindusstria complexes Less developed countries are left isolated from scientific endeavours Mobility of scientists has declined A divided and dangerous world
commons including less developed countries Science is a global stabilising agent Greater mobility of researchers Internationally agreed data standards Global strategic research fund combining 2%of each countries public research
with the charge that the exercise says too little on how to support science in developing countries.
Overall there is a more balanced global scientific effort as more countries perceive the benefits of investing in science.
and countries are more willing to subsume some of their national interests to ensure the success of global cooperative activities.
A major driver in this changing landscape has been the recognition that no one country has the intellectual or financial resources to tackle the crucial scientific questions alone.
With an expanded membership base (in terms of both countries and disciplines; an efficient head office structure;
Notes 1. The German Fraunhofer Gesellschaft (2010) has developed also exploratory scenarios for the future of the European research landscape in 2025.2.
See<http://wiwe. iknowfutures. eu/>accessed 10 march 2012.4. In 2007 ESF evaluated the experiences with Forward Looks (Van der meulen 2007.
'paper presented at the Fourth International Seville Conference on Future-oriented technology analysis, held Seville, Spain, 12 may 2011.
Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European communities. Fraunhofer Gesellschaft. 2010) Envisioning Future research Horizons: Scenarios for the European research Landscape 2025.
Vienna: UNIDO. Miles, I.,Cassingena Harper, J.,Georghiou, L.,Keenan, M. and Popper, R. 2008)‘ The many faces of foresight'.
Optimizing systems Increasing awareness of global consequences of climate change Economic recession Emission trading starts to have effect on companies Rising living standards in BRIC countries Green values:
The fourth driver is the rising living standards in the BRIC countries (Brazil, Russia, India and China.
experiences from the innovation policy foresight and strategy process of the City of Vienna',Technology analysis and Strategic management, 21: 953 69.
*and Karel Haegeman2 1 Impetu Solutions, Vi'ctor Andre's Belaunde, 36-4c, 28016 Madrid, Spain 2european Commission, JRC-IPTS, Edificio EXPO
, C/Inca Garcilaso 3, 41092 Seville, Spain*Corresponding author. Email: totti. konnola@impetusolutions. com. The complexity of transnational research programming and the requisite large-scale stakeholder engagement set a major managerial challenge:
Within the EU initiatives between Member States exist on all eight levels and all are part of the same research and innovation system.
In the EU platforms exist at regional8 (e g. Smart Specialisation Platform9 national (e g. ERAWATCH10) and transnational (e g.
is designed to address country-specific issues Insufficient knowledge of similar national programmes in other countries Lack of budgetary flexibility Lack of mutual trust Source of funding does not encourage use of funds for transnatiiona activities Language
The articulation of thematic priorities for transnational research and innovation co-operation, e g. from EU level, raises issues related to their coherence with the priorities and needs of lower levels of governance, particularly in terms of
Such programmes are implemented in different countries with different priorities. They either complement national and regional policies
or become a replacement policy framework in some fields (e g. in the case of new EU Member States).
participatory and anticipatory co-ordination approach The complexity of the co-ordination challenge of transnatiiona research programming calls for approaches that can engage stakeholders horizontally from different policy and research areas as well as vertically and internationally from different countries and regions to support informed
Transnational activities are focused on non-EU countries Administration costs of transnational projects outweigh benefits No significant policy changes or explicit criteria
The responsibles for the shaping of research agendas realised that a systematti participatory bottom up foresight process could streamline the engagement of Research and Technology development communities from eight countries.
(and three observers) of 19 EU Member States and Associated Countries 2008 11 Develop a durable focused network22 of national research funders in Member and Associated States of EU in order to share information,
and associated countries 2010 onwards‘Rethink and manage the increasing urban orientation and concentration in Europe in order to create
and access to research programmes and results across all countries Mapping and analysis of existing foresight exercises for urban regions and for other non-region specific topics relevant for urban development allows gaps
or transnational level Proposals for (strategic research topics for commissioning at EU level taking into account ongoing and planned research in European countries Facilitate cost-effectiveness of research-commissioning by trying to establish
close co-operation with China on foresight) Horizontal co-ordination Cross-feeding of research teams was encouraged by assessment of submitted issues
and capabilities of different countries to participate in joint programmes. We consider that foresight holds promise for a structured and responsive process that efficiently mobillise stakeholders
In Woodwisdom-Net, scalability meant that the consultation process had to deal with varying amounts of contributions from a large number of stakeholders in different countries.
for instance, input scalability can be achieved by carrying out modules of analogous foresight processes in different countries, after
which offers participating countries various options and instruments to participate (such as foresights, joint calls, and the alignment of existing programmes) in variable geometry.
which structures the engagement of stakeholders from different countries, sectors and disciplline and facilitates and speeds up the implementation (see Fig. 4). Achieving the benefits of foresight activities in support of the implementation of other programming functions is related to the appropriate positioning of foresight design and management in the overall programming process.
EU Member States have approved a first version of evolving and voluntary framewoor conditions for joint programming (ERAC-GPC 2011),
or when the research and innovation systems and capacities of the countries involved are highly diverse. 5. Conclusions Recent efforts in transnational research programming indicate that the mobilising effect of embedded foresight activities can lead to novel networking and cross-feeding of research and innovation
initiatives between the sectors, disciplines and different countries. However, such internatiiona engagements call for a structured and modular design to avoid endeavours that are time-and resource-intensive.
Food Security and Climate change have no openness to other EU Member States. 7. Platforms collecting data on foresight exercises can offer deeper insights into possible and desired futures of research priorities, e g.<
<www. foresight-platform. eu>accessed 15 march 2012.8. The use of‘regional'in this paper is to be understood as‘geographically part of a nation'
<http://ipts. jrc. ec. europa. eu/activities/research-andinnovvations3platform. cfm>accessed 15 march 2012.10. ERAWATCH is a platform collecting data on national research systems in the ERA,
For example, 23.9%of EU gross expenditure on r&d is performed by the higher education sector, but with many national differences.
In Luxembourg this is below 10, %while in Lithuania over 50%of gross expenditure on r&d is performed by this sector (calculaation based on Eurostat data for 2009).
Over 400 stakeholders from all participating countries participated in the process. 26. The assessment criteria for researcher's were:
industrial relevance, possible time horizon for industrial use and need for collaboration at EU level. 27.
See<www. foresight-platform. eu>accessed 15 march 2012.35. An example is the generic online foresight training,
Bruno, N. and Van til, J. 2011)‘ ERAWATCH Country Reports 2010: Belgium'.'Brussels: ERAWATCH Network Technopolis Group, European commission.
Brazil, India and China: What can we learn from three different approaches?''Working Paper SLPTMD (Department of International Development, University of Oxford.<
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2012)‘ Forlearn Online foresight Guide',<http://www. foresight-platform. eu/community/foresightguide/>accessed 15 march 2012. External Evaluation.
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Havas, A. 2003)‘ Evolving foresight in a small transition economy: The design, use and relevance of foresight methods in Hungary',Journal of Forecasting, 22: 179 203.
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Reid, A.,Miedzinski, M.,Bruno, N. and le Gars, G. 2007)‘ Synergies between the EU 7th Research Framework programme, the Competitiveness and Innovation Framework programme and the Structural Funds',Policy
<www. jointprogramming2010. eu/pdfpresenntation1. 2%20-%20seiser. pptx>accessed 15 march 2012. Smits, R. and Kuhlmann, S. 2004)‘ The rise of systemic instrumeent in innovation policy',International Journal of Foresight and Innovation policy, 1: 4 32.
JRC-IPTS, Seville, Spain, and ZHAW Zurich University of Applied sciences, Institute of Sustainable development, Postfach 805, CH-8401 Winterthur, Switzerland 4impetu Solutions, Vi'ctor Andre's Belaunde, 36-4c
, 28016 Madrid, Spain 5editage/Cactus Communications Inc.,C-912 BSEL Tech Park, Sector 30a, Vashi, New Mumbai 400 705, India 6austrian Institute of technology, Donau-City-Straße 1, 1220 Vienna, Austria 7advisory Council for Science
and Technology policy, Javastraat 42,2585 AP The hague, The netherlands*Corresponding author. Email: amana@otenet. gr. Future-oriented technology analysis methods can play a significant role in enabling early warning signal detection and pro-active policy action
which will help to better prepare policy-and decision-makers in today's complex and interdependent environments.
Time for the EU to meet global challenges',24364 EN, 6/2010. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European commission.
Bo schen, S.,Kastenhofer, K.,Rust, I.,Soentgen, J. and Wehling, P. 2010)‘ Scientific nonknowledge and its political dynamics:
Georghiou, L. 2007)‘ Future of foresighting for economic development',UNIDO, Vienna.<<http://www. unido. org/foresight/rwp/dokums pres/tf plenary georghiou 201. pdf>accessed 8 september 2011.
*Ahti Salo2, Cristiano Cagnin3, Vicente Carabias4 and Eeva Vilkkumaa2 1impetu Solutions, Vi'ctor Andre's Belaunde, 36-4c, 28016 Madrid, Spain 2aalto
University School of Science, Department of mathematics and Systems analysis, PO BOX 11100,00076 Aalto, Finland 3eu DG JRC-IPTS, Seville, Spain;
A, Ed. Corporate Financial center, Sl. 1112,70712-900, Brasi'lia-DF, Brasil 4eu DG JRC-IPTS, Seville, Spain;
and ZHAW Zurich University of Applied sciences, Institute of Sustainable development, Postfach 805, CH-8401 Winterthur, Switzerland*Corresponding author.
Time for the EU to meet global challenges'which was carried out for the Bureau of European Policy Advisors.
Time for the EU to meet global challenges, 'which was carried out in 2009 by the Joint research Centre-Institute for Prospective Technological Studies (JRC-IPTS) for the Bureau of European Policy Advisors (BEPA) of the European commission (EC).
Boden et al. 2010) which focused on long-term developments and their policy implications on EU policy-making, as a means of preparing for the development of the Europe 2020 strategy and related policy initiatives such as the EC Communication on the Innovation Union.
with the aim of identifying future trends and disruptive events that could have major implications on EU policy-making by 2025 (cf.
relevance to EU policy-making. novelty in comparison with earlier policy debates. probability of occurrence by 2025 In total, 381 issues were evaluated on a seven-point Likert-scale
the core issues identified in this analysis seemed to be the most relevant for EU policy-making. 3. 3. 2 Variance-oriented analysis. Variance-oriented analysis was conducted
and to examine their policy implications for the EU. Apart from participants from BEPA and JRC-IPTS, there were 22 representatives from several Directorates-General of the EC,
and how the EU could respond to it through adequate policies. At least one of the three issues had to be among the top-10 core issues in one of the three different analyses,
which the workshop participants created novel interlinkagge by formulating crosscutting challenges and by envisioonin corresponding EU policies and actions in domains such as:
and the role of EU in relation to global governance. Table 2 provides an example of such a crosscutting challenge that synthesizes issues from different thematic areas.
and workshop participannts such as the one presented in Table 2. These 22 crosscutting challenges were prioritized then by discussing them in the light of three solution-oriented criteria related to their importance at the EU level.
Is the challenge likely to provoke impacts that require urgent actions at EU level?.Tractability:
Does the EU have the institutional capacity to act on this challenge?.Impact: Are the actions to be taken by the EU expected to have a major global positive impact?
A reconsideration of the policy agenda of BEPA, together with a collective analysis of all issues
and small radicalized groups will use more and more sophisticated forms of attacks V M State's ability to guarantee security of citizens will increase in Western world M R Interdependency of internal and external security is growing in EU
The need for more effective and transparent governannc for the EU and the world. All these challenges exhibit a global scope
and require action at EU level through appropriately aligned crosscutttin policies that implement effective joint responses.
and then synthesized into challenges at the EU level. The vocal satisfaction expressed by the workshop participants suggests that there is considerable potential in carrying out similar or analogous exercises based on the same methodological approach.
and how such challenges could be explored in view of EU-level policy implications. The traceability of crosscutting challenges
font styles of issue codes refer to results obtained in different RPM analyses(<http://foresight. jrc. ec. europa. eu/survey issues. pdf,
Time for the EU to meet global challenges'which has informed the strategy processes of BEPA and JRC, has influenced also other stakeholders,
2. Effie Amanatidou, Anette Braun, Ville Brummer and Mika Mannermaa supported JRC-IPTS in reviewing four out of the six areas. 3. During the International Seville Conference
The particularly novel issues from this survey were added to the issues collected from the literature review. 4. These issues plus the 73 additional issues identified by the survey participants can be found at<http://foresight. jrc. ec. europa. eu/bepa. html
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