http://www. ingentaconnect. com/content/beech/spp Future technology analysis for biosecurity and emerging infectious diseases in Asia-pacific Nares Damrongchai, Ponpiboon Satangput, Greg Tegart and Chatri
Sripaipan This paper presents a future-oriented technology analysis (FTA) project on the control and management of emerging infectious diseases (EID) in the Asia-pacific Economic cooperation region.
but developing countries have a disproportionate share because of poverty, limited access to health care, drug resistaanc
Biosecurity and emerging infectious diseases in Asia-pacific Science and Public policy February 2010 42 new diseases such as SARS and bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) with variants such as H5n1;
and to improve the human and animal health situation in both developed and developing countries.
that furthhe develops into‘converging technologies'has emerged in the US and in Europe. It emphasizes producctiv interactions between previously separate fields of research and technological development.
In the US the term‘converging technologies'was used first at a 2001 workshop organized by the US National science Foundation and the US Departmeen of Commerce entitled‘Converging Technologiie for Improving Human Performance'.
since been held in the US (Roco and Bainbridge, 2002). In Europe the concept of NBIC was studied by A high-Level Expert Group
and the US for a number of years followed by administration of industrria research and of government science and technology (S&t) in Australia.
and emerging infectious diseases in Asia-pacific Science and Public policy February 2010 43 The concept has been extended in the European union's Seventh Framework Program to the possibiliitie at the interface of micro nano systems and the living world.
The result of this‘converging'approach is to be shown in this paper in the context of the crossbounndar Asia-pacific regional setting.
The new challenge in the present study is the roadmapping of converging technologies within the diversity of the Asia-pacific region.
and have impacts on decisionmakkin and actions in the private and public sectors through cooperation over a wide geographical area, specifically the Asia-pacific region in the next decaad and beyond.
Phucharoenchanachai (2005) Biosecurity and emerging infectious diseases in Asia-pacific Science and Public policy February 2010 44 In Phase II, the objective was to determine directiion for future R&d
2005) where EID become a threat in the Asia-pacific region over the next decade and beyoond Thirty three experts from seven economies met in Thailand in February 2007 to develop scenarios for the future of EID in the Asia-pacific region.
After keynote speeches given by speakers from Rand IBM, Oracle, and the Australian Biosecurity Cooperaativ Research centre, the experts were organised into smaller groups.
emerging infectious diseases in Asia-pacific Science and Public policy February 2010 45 possibly hinder the progress of technology developmment
An epidemic, of unknown cause, occurred in ten countries. After tracing back for two years,
The model Was developed in Roadmapping I Developed in Roadmapping II Figure 3. Structure of technology roadmaps Biosecurity and emerging infectious diseases in Asia-pacific Science and Public policy February 2010 46 proposed at the workshop
and emerging infectious diseases in Asia-pacific Science and Public policy February 2010 47 find more technology applications. The additional technology applications identified were:
and influence decisionmakkin regarding EID and biosecurity throughout the Asia-pacific region. Such a continuity of effort to disseminate the outputs of the project
Elsewhere the report was disseminated throughout the Asia-pacific region and also to non-APEC members such as the UK who also participated in the project.
to combating EIDS Biosecurity and emerging infectious diseases in Asia-pacific Science and Public policy February 2010 48 Table 3. Roadmap for development of EID diagnostics 2007 2012 2013 2017
Beyond 2017 Validated, easy to use in the field or local site, low cost, suitable for developed and developing countries, no cold chain required Higher sensitivity and specificity Simultaneous,
Currently, RIKEN, the leading governmental research institute in Japan, is developpin laboratories in collaboration with Thailand, Vietnam, China, Indonesia
multi-agent diagnostic devices linked to automated data collection and analysis Biosecurity and emerging infectious diseases in Asia-pacific Science and Public policy February 2010 49 APEC diagnosis center,
a range of tools to enhance capabiliit in these areas needs to be developed specificaall for the Asia-pacific region,
Hence, the unique contribution of this paper lies in its dealing with cross-disciplinary technologies (converging technologies) in a cross-boundary regioona setting (Asia-pacific.
and emerging infectious diseases in Asia-pacific Science and Public policy February 2010 50 identification of‘technology roadmaps'that are to be applied to a wider geographical area and more diverse level of technology capacity and socioeconommi development.
The implication of this project is that it has creatte a new network of knowledgeable and concerned scientists and technologists in the field of biosecurity in the Asia-pacific region.
This project was funded by the Asia-pacific Economic Cooperaatio (APEC) and the National science and Technology Developmmen Agency Ministry of Science and Technology, Royal Thai government.
Paper presented at EU US Seminar: New Technollog Foresight, Forecasting & Assessment Methods, held 13 14 may 2004, Seville, Spain.
World health organization 2006. Assessing vaccine-preventable diseases burden and immunization impact. Available at<http://www. who. int/immunization monitoring/burden/en/>,last accessse August 2008
This paper is revised a version of a paper presented at the Third International Seville Seminar on Future-oriented technology analysis:
Impacts and Implications for Policy and Decision-making, held 16 17 october 2008 at Seville, Spain. User involvement in future technology analysis Science and Public policy February 2010 52 Indeed,
Paper presented at European Communicatiion Policy Research Conference (Eurocpr), held 31 march 1 april 2008, Seville, Spain.
http://www. ingentaconnect. com/content/beech/spp Impact of Swiss technology policy on firm innovation performance: an evaluation based on a matching approach Spyros Arvanitis, Laurent Donzé and Nora Sydow This paper investigates the impact of the promotional activities of The swiss Commission of Technology
and Innovation (CTI) on the innovation performance of the supported firms based on a matched-pairs analysis of 199 firms supported by the CTI in the period 2000 2002.
which is the most important government agency for the promotiio of innovation in Switzerland, was investigated in this study.
and a public partner, is fundamental to The swiss technoloog policy and, as a main promotional policy, to our knowledge, is unique in Europe.
Czarnitzki and Fier, 2002 (for Germany; Pointner and Rammer, 2005 (for Austria; Görg and Strobl, 2007 (for Ireland.
1 A major advantage of the matching methods rather than the regression approach is that the matching is nonparametric.
As such, it T Spyros Arvanitis is at KOF Swiss Economic Institute, ETH Zurich, 8092 Zurich, Switzerland;
Laurent Donzé is at the Faculty of economics and Social sciences, University of Fribourg, 1700 Friboug, Switzerland; Email:
Nora Sydow is at the Economic Research Department, Credit suisse, 8070 Zurich, Switzerland; Email: nora. sydow@creditsuiissecom;
This study was supported financially by The swiss Federal office for Professional Education and Technology. Impact of technology policy on innovation by firms Science and Public policy February 2010 64 avoids the functional form restrictions implicit in running a regression of some type.
We collected innovation data for the promoted firms similla to those already existing for a sample of innovating firms of The swiss Innovation Survey 2002 (Arvanitis et al.
public fiscal policies to support innovation Most OECD countries use large amounts of public funds to support activities that are intended to enhaanc innovation in the business sector.
Swiss technology policy There is a long tradition in Switzerland of refraining from directly funding business firms for innovation activities.
In a comparison of industrialized countries only Japan and Luxembourg show a comparably low percentage of government financing for R&d (OECD
) This tradition is based on a wide Spyros Arvanitis is a senior researcher at the KOF Swiss Economic Institute and a lecturer in economics at the ETH Zurich.
Luarent Donzé has been an associate professor at the Univerrsit of Fribourg, Switzerland since 2002. Before this appoinntmen he was a senior researcher at the KOF Swiss Economic Institute at the ETH Zurich.
He teaches and researrche on statistics and econometrics, especially on measures of economic inequality, the construction and maintenance of panels of firms,
Before this appointment she was a researcher at the KOF Swiss Economic Institute at the ETH Zurich and responsible for the KOF Enterprise Panel.
She holds a master's degree from the University of St gallen, Switzerland. Impact of technology policy on innovation by firms Science and Public policy February 2010 65 consensus not only among political actors but also among organizations representing business interests.
According to the results of The swiss Economic Survve (Arvanitis et al. 2007), less than 10%of Swiss firms perceive a lack of public R&d promotion to be a strong,
or very strong, obstacle to their innovation activities; this percentage has remained practically constant since 1990. As a consequence, only a few fiscal initiatives to support research
and a public partner, is fundamental to Swiss technology policy. To the best of our knowledge, it is unique in Europe as a main promotional policy. 2 Methods of evaluation of measures of technology policy Evaluating the outcomes of subsidized projects is difficult,
and a public partner, is fundamental to Swiss technology policy. To the best of our knowledge, it is unique in Europe as a main promotional policy Impact of technology policy on innovation by firms Science and Public policy February 2010 66 either matching approaches (as in this paper) or selecctio
Seven of them reffe to European countries (Austria, Germany, Ireland, Spain and Switzerland), six of them apply matching approaches
Moreover, the study for Ireland combines selection correction approach and matching method, that for Austria uses both approaaches Finally, three of the non-European studies (USA, Japan and Israel) use versions
+Busom (2000), Spain R&d subsidy programme 1988 154 Selection correction: Two-equation system (participation eqn.:
2002), Switzerland Programme of promoting use of Computer Integrated Manufacturing Technologies (CIMT)( CIM Programme, 1990 1996) 463 Selection correction:
Switzerland Programme of promoting use of CIMT (CIM Programme, 1990 1996) 463 Matched-pair analysis (several alternative methods) Change in CIMT intensity (1990 1996):+
+for small firms no effect for large firms Czarnitzki and Fier (2002), Germany Public innovation subsidies in German service sector 210 Matched-pairs analysis (nearest
+Almus and Czarnitzki (2003), Germany R&d subsidies to East german firms (1994,1996, 1999) 622 Matched-pairs analysis (calliper matching) R&d intensity:+
+Pointner and Rammer (2005), Austria Programme of promoting use of CIMT (Flexcim Programme, 1991 1996) 301 (a) Selection correction:
additional information on the firms whose projeect were subsidized that was collected through a survey of the subsidized firms based on a shortenne version of the questionnaire used in The swiss Innovation Survey 2002;
and the data for firms that reported the introduction of innovations in the period 2000 2002 in The swiss Innovation Survey 2002.
These firms received a shortenne version of the questionnaire of The swiss Innovattio Survey 2002.3 185 firms completed the questionnaire (see Table A1 in the Appendix to this paper for information on the response rates by scientiifi field.
A further 14 subsidized firms were identiffie among the participants of The swiss Innovation Survey 2002.
The 996 firms that participated in The swiss Innovattio Survey 2002 and reported the introduction of innovations in the period 2000 2002 built the pool of non-subsidized firms from
This was the dominant group among subsidized firms in accordaanc with the importance of these capital goods industtrie for Swiss manufacturing with respect to generated value added,
which are on average the most innovative Swiss firms, are quite underrepreesente among the subsidized firms (4%),reflecctin the strong tendency of this branch of aboveaveerag investment in R&d.
electroonic and instruments reflecting the current structure of Swiss manufacturing. The‘bottom-up'principle applied by the CTI for allocating funds seems to be quite effective.
All this is also in accordance with the general principles of The swiss technology policy tending to be‘non-activist',providiin primarily for the improvement of framework condittion for private innovation activities.
200 499 employees Region of Lake Geneva 500 999 employees Midlands region 1000 employees and over North western Switzerland-0. 30 Other characteristics:(
0. 14) Continuous R&d activities 0. 40 Eastern Switzerland (0. 10) Central Switzerland Export activities 0. 43 Ticino (0. 11) Language
Firm founded before 1996-0. 86 French 0. 56 (0. 14)( 0. 10) German N 1317 Adj. Mcfadden-R2 0. 14
2001) for the role of framework conditions for the evaluation of industry university collaboratioons and Polt and Streicher (2005) for the evaluation of large programmes such as the Framework programmes of the Europeea Union. 2. For overviews of Swiss
Griessen and Braun (2006) deal with the problems of political coordination of innovation policies in Switzerland.
It is available in German, French and Italian. 4. The expression‘treatment effect'comes from labour market research,
Vienna: European commission. Arvanitis, S, H Hollenstein and S Lenz 2002. The effectiveness of government promotion of advanced manufacturing technologiie (AMT:
an economic analysis based on Swiss micro data. Small Business Economics, 19 (4), 321 340. Arvanitis, S, H Hollenstein, N Sydow and M Wörter 2007.
Bonn, Germany: IZA (Institute for the Study of Labour. Caliendo M. and S Kopeinig 2005.
DIW (German Institute for Econoomi Research. Czarnitzki, D and A Fier 2002. Do innovation subsidies crowd out private investment?
Evidence from the German service sector, ZEW Discussion paper No. 02-04, Mannheim, Germany: ZEW. David, P, B Hall and A Toole 2000.
Matched-pair analysis based on business survey data to evaluate the policy of supporting the adoption of advannce manufacturing technologies by Swiss firms, KOF Working Paper No. 65, July 2002.
Switzerland 2007 2008 European trend chart on innovation. Brussels: European commission. Feller, I 2007. Mapping the frontiers of evaluation of public-sector R&d programmes.
The political coordination of knowledge and innovation policies in Switzerland. Science and Public policy, 35 (4), 277 288.
a long-term analysis for The swiss case. Science and Public Policcy 33 (3), 205 216. Nelson, R R 1959.
Switzerland. Paris: OECD. OECD 2007. Science, Technology and Industry Board Innovatiio and Performance in the Global economy.
Vienna: Leykam. Polt, W c Rammer, H Gassler, A Scibany and D Schartinger 2001. Benchmarking industry science relations:
*Ron Johnston2 and Fabiana Scapolo3 1mark Boden, European commission Joint research Centre, Institute for Prospective Technological Studies, Seville, Spain 2professor Ron Johnston, Australian Centre for Innovation
Mark. boden@ec. europa. eu. The Fourth International Seville Conference on Future-oriented technology analysis (FTA) held in May 2011, focussed on the need and potential of FTA to address disruptive transformations in global and national structures
The Fourth International Seville Conference on Future-oriented technology analysis (FTA) entitled‘‘FTA and Grand Societal Challenges: Shaping and Driving Structural and Systematic Transformations organised by the Institute of Prospective Technological Studies of the European commission's Joint research Centre (JRC-IPTS) was held in May 2011.
the selection of a limited number of policy-relevant posters, based on the experience both of individual countries and international organisatioons the invitation to policy-makers and experts to provide an informed audience for the poster presentations;
Time for the EU to meet global challenges'(Boden et al. 2010) to illustrate how horizon scanning can enable collective sense-making processes which assist in the identification of emerging signals and policy issues, the synthesis of such issues into encompassing clusters,
<http://foresight. jrc. ec. europa. eu/fta 2011/intro. html>accessed March 2012.138. M. Boden et al.
Time for the EU to meet global challenges',24364 EN, 6/2010. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European commission.
Georghiou, L. 2011)‘ Connecting conference outcomes with policy needs, options and implications'paper presented during final plenary session at the Fourth International Conference on Future-oriented technology analysis, held Seville, Spain
, 12 3 may 2011.<<http://foresight. jrc. ec. europa. eu/fta 2011/Programmeandpapers. htm>accessed March 2012.
The role of FTA in responding to grand challenges. 139
Challenges in communicating the outcomes of a foresight study to advise decision-makers on policy and strategy Claudio Chauke Nehme1, 2,,
70712-900, Brasilia, DF, Brazil 2catholic University of Brasilia, Brazil*Corresponding author. Email: chauke@cgee. org. br This paper addresses the challenges of communicating the results of a strategic foresight exercise
and constituute a differential for organizations and countries looking forward to shaping their own future
Based on concepts developed by the EU (Santos and Santos 2003), foresight is considered to be an activity connecctin three different dimensions of the same process:
It is broad enough to support a large spectrum of ST&I activities in the country. All phases of the innovation value chain are being mapped by FINEP
in order to guide national investments in nanosciences and nanotechnologies Trends in S&t development in a selected group of countries;
and nanotechnologies in selected countries Challenges in communicating the outcomes of foresight studies. 251 supporting basic and applied research;
'<http://forlearn. jrc. ec. europa. eu/guide/0 home/index. htm>accessed 12 december 2011. Glenn, J. C. 2010)‘ Collective Intelligence:
From Theory to Practice, Brasilia, Brazil, 16 7 december 2010. Horton, A. 1999)‘ Forefront: a simple guide to successful foresigght'Foresight:
From Theory to Practice, Brasilia, Brazil, 16 7 december 2010. Jouvenel, B. 1967) The Art of Conjecture.
Research priority setting in China Mats Benner1, Li Liu2, *and Sylvia Schwaag Serger1 1lund University research Policy Institute, P o box 117, SE-221 00 Lund, Sweden, 2institute of Science, Technology and Society, School of Humanities
and Social sciences, Tsinghua University, 100084 Beijing, China*Corresponding author. Email: liuli66@tsinghua. edu. cn Few countries have increased their expenditure on r&d as rapidly as has China in recent years.
However, so far, little academic attention has been paid to how decisions are taken and priorities set in Chinese research policy.
This paper analyzes priority-setting in China's recent research policy. We find that China's research policy is driven by a variety of different,
and sometimes conflicting, objectives, leading to a multitude of often overlapping initiatives. Secondly, missionaan excellence-driven research dominates over institution-and capacity-building and diffusion objectives.
Aside from contributing to the understanding of China's research and innovation policy and system, this paper provides insights into policy change in China more generally and also into the processes
China, science policy, research, innovation. 1. Introduction and problem definition In recent years, there has been a rapidly growing interest in the development of science, technology and innovation (STI) in the People's republic of china.
So far, scholarly interest has focused on the overall evolution and design of China's science and technology (S&t system (Ke 2004;
and interests shaping the priorities in China's R&d programs and policies. The choice of China may be motivated by its sheer importtanc in the world scientific system,
where it is quickly moving from laggard to leader. The question remains how that transformation is related to policy practice, that is,
In this sense, the outline of a Chinese research policy model is therefore indicative of a more general policy change in China.
and which of these models may be suited best to fulfill the goal of making China a global scientific superpoowe (see also Hao 2008).
Thus, China can be categorized clearly as a top-down and centralized planning system, which focuses on large-scale accomplishments and numerical accomplishments, with a preference for grandiose plans.
'This indicates that China is not moving towards a substitution of centralized reseaarc governance with a fully fledged pluralist system without strong coordinating mechanisms a`la Russia after the Soviet period (Graham and Dezhina 2008.
pluralist coordinattio that is emerging in many Western countries (cf. Braun 2008 on Europe; Block and Keller 2011 on the USA.
Instead, China seems to be forging its own way with an evolving mixture of planning, decentralization and deliberation. 1. 1 Trends in setting priorities Explicit models for science policy priority-setting devellope late and with great tensions.
In his classic paper Weinberg (1963) formulated what later became a dominant mechanism for priority-setting in science policy in Western countries:
Today's mechanism for priority-setting in these countries is therefore a hybrid, sometimes drawing upon scientific expertise not only in low-level decision-making but also in the framing of societal challenges underlying science policy priorities (Pielke 2007),
Ergas (1987) identifies two principal orientations of countries'technology policy: diffusion-and missionorienttation While Ergas'categorization is useful,
Foray 2000) have focused generally on economically advanced countries and thus presuppose relatively well-developed and mature S&t institutions, basic capacities and governance mechanisms.
However, Emerging s&t systems, such as China's, combine rapid advances in S&t resources with significant Research priority setting in China. 259 systemic immaturities regarding for example funding allocattio mechanisms,
How are research priorities set in China?.What are its defining characteristics and practices: for which purposes is funding allocated,
2. China's S&t system and policy: An overview 2. 1 A short history While China has a long history of scientific and technologgica discovery,
in modern times it has lagged behind Western countries in S&t (Ke 2004). Beginning with the founding of People's republic of china in 1949, a Socialist centralized S&t system was built in the 1950s by adding the Soviet model of centralized planning onto the S&t system that had emerged in the Republic of china (e g.
Wang 1993; Simon and Goldman 1989. Five S&t‘forces'or actors were identified: the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), the public research institutes affiliated to the ministries,
Overall, the pre-reform S&t system in China was characterized by a disconnection between research and commercialization on the one hand,
After the end of the Cultural Revolution, the direction of China's development policy, and with it its S&t policy, changed radically (Gu and Lundvall 2006;
and open-door policy and was watershed an important event for S&t in China. At the opening ceremony, then-Premier Deng xiaoping Figure 1. Phases in Chinese S&t policy making.
As China started the transition from a planned economy to a market economy, this entailed a reconstruction of the S&t institutes as well as the universities and, in particular,
when the China Communist party Central Committee (CCPCC) issued policy documents outlining three major systems reforms: of the economic system in 1984, of the S&t system in 1985,
while launching the National Natural science Foundation of China (NSFC) and national S&t programs for researchers to apply to on a competitive base.
The decision on‘acceleration of progress in S&t'marked a further step towards orienting S&t towards China's social and economic needs
and towards linking STI efforts more closely with market forces and the private sector (US Embassy Beijing 1996).
2. 2 Governance of the S&t system An important element characterizing the governance of China's S&t system throughout the phases identified before is the strong involvement of China's top leaders in S&t decision-making.
but also the fundamental policy stance on opening up China for trade and investment, for example through accession to the World trade organization and the policy of attracting foreign technollog and investments.
Thus China has continued on the Soviet model of using plans (jihua, or guihua) to drive the development of S&t,
Priorities expreesse in the MLP include‘strategic priorities'(zhanlue Research priority setting in China. 261 zhongdian),
China has launched various national S&t programs (jihua. 1 The most salient programs in recent history are the National Key technologies R&d Program established in 1984,
but also on the allocation of resources into mission-driven activities (see Table 2). 4 Table 1. China's R&d programs Program Starting year Objective 6th Five-year
1986 National High-technology R&d Program (863 Program) 1986 Foster China's overall innovation capacity in high-tech sectors and enhance its international competitiveness Spark Program 1986
Key data for expendditur by Central Government on the main S&t programs is shown in Table 3. Fig. 2 classifies China's main S&t programs,
based on data on national S&t programs provided in the China Statistical Yearbook on Science and Technology (2009).
or thematic centers of excellence can be juxtaposed with programs aimed at raising the general level of S&t throughout the country.
Table 2. Structure of national S&t programs Research priority setting in China. 263 By classifying national S&t programs into these categories,
we reveal a strong emphasis of China's S&t programs on mission and academic excellence,
2009 China Statistical Yearbook on Science and Technology Data from 2008. Note: In order to simplify, some programs have been grouped into one‘bubble'.
MOST (2009)( see Note 2) and China Statistical Yearbook on Science and Technology (2009).**Data for 863 Program are from MOST (2009)( see Note 2),
China Science and Technology indicators (2008) and from<http://www. sts. org. cn>accessed 20 may 2011.264.
improve China's indigenoou innovation capability, and improve industrial competitiveenes and upgrade in general. While the mission orientation has remained prominent throughout the history of the People's republic of china,
listing for example the developmmen of a high-speed train as one of its objectives. 3. 3 Excellence or concentration Several of China's plans and programs are driven clearly by
which was inspired strongly by the US National science Foundation. The NSFC was a product of the official reform of the S&t system
MOST (see Note 2) and China Statistical Yearbook on Science and Technology (2009). Research priority setting in China. 265 the ideal of planning also shapes and influences programs for excellence.
Finally, the State Key Laboratory Program seeks to concentrate resources in a few centers of excellence,
it could be argued that S&t spending by China's government spending has been focused more on generating knowledge than on utilizing it.
when compared with many other countries. However, the imbalance acquires greater significance when a country has developed insufficiently capital markets compared with countries where there are mature markets and channels for innovation funding.
While there is an abundance of capital in China today, the funding system for commercialization of new firms,
products and services suffers from several institutional shortcomings and weaknesses, both with regard to bank lending and venture capital funding (Fuller 2009;
2011), further accentuating the bias against diffusion in the S&t programs. 3. 5 Institution-and capacity-building Several programs aim at building and strengthening China's emerging institutions and capacities.
both as a percentage of gross domestic product and compared with education funding in other countries, is low.
The 211 Program aims to create a critical mass of world-class universities in China.
is to strengthen China's higher education system by funding around 40 universities out of a total of around 2, 000 regular institutions of higher education in China (Marginson 2006).
A further indication of the‘bipolar'nature of China's university system is that the top nine universities,
which strengthen China's S&t system by conducting world-class research, transferring research results to industry, providing S&t policy advice,
and linking China into the international S&t community. Recently, however, the KIP has linked increasingly research at its institutes to mission objectives,
and program design in China. We focus primarily on the so-called meta-level, using examples from some of China's most important programs and plans. 266.
M. Benner et al. 4. 1 Setting the agenda Chinese S&t policy-making can be divided into componeent
The five-year plans are the most obvious and structured tool of China's economic planning process in the sense that that it is clear to everyone
these appeals tend to address widely known issues or problems in China's S&t system. In some cases they may even be encouraged by the government, letting experts point to problem areas
. and Fangyun Chen) to national leaders, calling for the acceleration of China's high-tech development. They stressed the need to meet the challenges of the global technology revolution and competition and pointed to the US Strategic Defense Initiatives as well as Europe's EUREKA Program.
In March 1986 Deng xiaoping personally approved the drafting of a National High-tech R&d Program, the 863 Program.
The MOST propagated the idea that China should pursue the idea of‘indigenous innovation 'or‘homegrown innovation'and strive to reduce China's dependence on foreign Technology research priority setting in China. 267 (Mei and Luo 2005).
In contrast, some economists, such as Justin Yifu Lin, argued that the country should continue to rely on China's comparative advantages (Lin et al. 2003.
A related debate centered on the impact of foreign direct investment, which had been encouraged strongly by Chinese official policy,
on China's technological upgrading, with MOST expressing skepticism (Mei and Luo 2005). During 2005, officials involved in the drafting sought input from foreign experts
Overall, the processes surrounding priority-setting in China's national S&t programs are characterized by formal and elaborate processes with an emphasis on input by scientific experts,
Although the drafting of the medium-and long-term plan included structures for stakeholder involvement and transparency, overall, priority-setting in China's research policy tends to be characterized by a top-down selection of both thematic areas and fundamental development strategies.
‘Feet on the ground'(lidi) means that Chinese S&t should be targeted at China's strategic economic, social and national defense needs.
and strengthening China's international prestige. Furthermore, the increasing research investments are expected to provide the foundattio for future economic growth,
allowing China to move up the value chain, and to solve many of China's daunting challenges,
by providing techniica solutions for overcoming problems such as scarcity of resources, provision of energy, and environmental degradation.
integrating S&t with a new evolutiionar path for China, as a leader in innovation, but also a society balancing economic growth with social stabillit and ecological balance.
In general, China is moving in the direction of pluralist priority-setting, but even bottom-up consultation processes bear traces of central control.
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