the report aims to highlight the effects of stabilizing greenhouse gases at a chosen target level.
and sea level rise of different greenhouse-gas emissions scenarios. It also concludes that once the global average temperature warms beyond a certain point,
Not emitting greenhouse gases in the first place is the most effective way to reduce climate change.
Mystery RNA spawns gene-activating peptides: Nature Newssome so-called'non-coding'pieces of RNA may actually encode short proteins that regulate genes,
For perspective, the Union of Concerned Scientists, based in Cambridge, Massachusetts, estimates the corresponding reduction in greenhouse-gas emissions at 1 gigatonne
Money will be raised by selling 300 million carbon credits from the European union's emissions trading scheme for greenhouse gases;
Business watch Firms that tap unconventional natural-gas sources 墉 such as in underground shale 墉 are in demand.
The moves are based on a belief that such sources will make up an increasing share of global gas production,
Ozone treaty could be used for greenhouse gases: Nature Newsinternational negotiators might be bogged down in the ongoing United nations climate talks,
but there could yet be hope for an agreement on reducing emissions of a class of powerful greenhouse gases  using the same treaty that is responsible for the phasing out of gases responsible for destroying the ozone layer.
however, including small-island nations that want rapid greenhouse-gas reductions as well as industrial giants such as the United states and Europe.
700 times more potent than CO2 as a greenhouse gas, and as such it fetches a high price on the carbon market.
Meanwhile, the executive board of the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) the emissions-trading scheme to meet the greenhouse-gas reduction targets set by the Kyoto Protocol in August put a hold on issuing carbon credits
the chemical (dubbed HFO-1234yf) is 360 times less potent as a greenhouse gas than the current refrigerant, HFC-134a,
with no legally binding commitments for countries to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Following Copenhagen, the U s. Senate was unable to pass even a modest cap
that human-generated greenhouse gases, including carbon dioxide, are in large part to blame, or that the plausible worst-case scenario could be catastrophic.
-gas emissions 墉 largely approving commitments made in last year's Copenhagen Accord. See page 875 for more.
Hall (pictured) has made it clear that he will take a hard line against attempts to regulate greenhouse gases.
Working into the small hours of 11 Â December, negotiators agreed that both developed and developing countries will act to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions
The other major dispute in Canc  n was between the world's two largest greenhouse-gas emitters the United states and China.
the only international agreement with legally binding targets to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions. No solution was forthcoming at the beginning of this week.
Policy Emissions control The US Environmental protection agency's first controls on greenhouse-gas emissions came into effect on 2 january.
Its authority to regulate greenhouse-gas pollution (under the Clean Air Act) is being challenged by opposition in Congress and by litigation.
protecting wetlands may not make a huge difference to anthropogenic greenhouse-gas emissions. Oceanographer Christoph Heinze at the University of Bergen, Norway, points out that the carbon sequestration abilities of wetland plants are
Gas bubbles in the 3, 330-metre-long core, the final section of which was extracted on 28 january,
and Ruddiman, of the University of Virginia in Charlottesville, argues that it is no coincidence the clearing of land and expansion of irrigation released huge amounts of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.
trying to figure out exactly how much of any one particular decline is due to greenhouse gases is not necessarily helpful,
the harder it is to link single events to greenhouse-gas-driven global climate change.
To say whether the extreme dryness was caused by rising greenhouse gases requires looking at the region as a whole and asking
you will have a harder time making the greenhouse-gas link and you probably just shouldn't try.
And a quarter to a third of global greenhouse-gas emissions are the result of land-use change in forests,
Between 70%and 80%of agricultural greenhouse-gas emissions, such as nitrous oxide, come from the production and use of nitrogen fertilizers.
and that emissions of methane 墉 a precursor to ozone and itself a powerful greenhouse gas 墉 could be cut from agricultural waste
and oil and gas operations Ethanol subsidies The US Senate has voted to end costly federal subsidies for producing ethanol from maize (corn).
The judgment, on 20 june, rules out the use of such lawsuits at the federal level to limit greenhouse gases.
Deforestation causes some 15%of global greenhouse-gas emissions and 75%of Brazil's. Rousseff's predecessor, Luis In ¡
Montreal impasse Although 108 countries now support a movement to amend the Montreal Protocol to regulate hydrofluorocarbons (HFCS) as greenhouse gases,
As potent greenhouse gases, their regulation falls under the United nations climate framework, but many argue that they would be phased out faster
COMING UP4-8 december The triennial World Petroleum Congress the'Olympics of the oil and gas industry'meets in Qatar.
The Deepwater horizon disaster, shale-gas fracking and Arctic exploration are all on the agenda. www. 20wpc. com5-9 december Research on the magnitude 9. 0 earthquake that struck Japan
'Alberta s scheme, called the Specified Gas Emitters Regulation, was passed by the Alberta legislature in 2007.
It sets limits on the intensity levels of greenhouse gases emitted by Alberta facilities oil sands operations and coal-fired power plants,
Not all greenhouse-gas emissions are measured in the same way or with the same level of accuracy.
continuous emissions-monitoring systems can directly monitor flue gases for CO2 and other greenhouse gases.
These range from paying farmers to adopt low-till or no-till agricultural practices thereby turning fields into carbon sinks to the collection and combustion of landfill gas.
For example, Tokyo's greenhouse gas emitters can purchase credits from outside Tokyo, but are limited in how many they can apply against their emissions.
For the credit-creating projects to be effective at reducing overall greenhouse-gas emissions, the scheme operators are supposed to approve only projects that would otherwise not have gone ahead.
has no specific provisions for addressing agricultural greenhouse-gas emissions. The scientists recommend that parties to the UNFCCC establish a programme to develop a global sustainable agriculture strategy,
and force out natural gas. See go. nature. com/p5fj1q for more. Events Heavenly kiss China's unmanned Shenzhou 8 spacecraft docked with its Tiangong 1 module on 2 november,
from where they will start to map lunar gravity in March 2012. go. nature. com/msewftregulation of aviation's greenhouse-gas emissions is set to start in the European union.
a controversial technique that involves pumping high-pressure fluids into shale to force out natural gas, probably polluted water supplies in central Wyoming.
The first round of greenhouse-gas reduction commitments under the Kyoto Protocol will expire at the end of 2012,
best chance to establish a fresh road map to curb greenhouse-gas emissions. Agreed in 1997,
the Kyoto Protocol is still the only global treaty that sets out legally binding goals for countries to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions.
which countries can sell carbon credits for projects that lower greenhouse-gas emissions, such as renewable energy.
with 5%of the carbon credits being set aside to account for any leakage of stored greenhouse gases in the 20 years after they are buried.
Deforestation accounts for about 15%of global greenhouse-gas emissions and 75%of Brazil s. Katia Abreu, a senator from the state of Tocantins and  president of the Brazilian Confederation of Agriculture
but also erode Brazil s reputation as a global leader in cutting greenhouse-gas emissions. One key test of Brazil's resolve will come next June,
and examines how different levels of greenhouse-gas emissions could affect sectors such as agriculture, health and infrastructure over the twenty-first century.
Pollutants key to climate fixbuses spew clouds of black exhaust fumes in Mexico city while, in India,
Methane leaks from gas pipelines in Russia and rice paddies in China, eventually breaking down in sunlight and contributing to the production of smog and ozone.
while countries grapple with efforts to regulate emissions of carbon dioxide, the most important greenhouse gas."
For methane, the study identified 14 control measures that would target leakage from coal mining and oil and gas operations, emissions from landfills, wastewater systems, livestock manure and rice paddies.
and was prompted by a law passed in 2008 that was meant to support the growing efforts towards regulating greenhouse gases.
and type and volume of greenhouse gases, including the ubiquitous carbon dioxide and methane and the more esoteric fluorinated chemicals.
and track greenhouse-gas emissions, as well as those studying natural carbon cycles. As scientists pin down exactly where anthropogenic carbon emissions are coming from,
Carbon dioxide makes up about 95%of the greenhouse-gas emissions logged (although if emissions from agriculture and other sectors in the full US inventory are included,
And power plants overshadow any other stationary sources of greenhouse gases, accounting for about three-quarters of emissions in the inventory (see The gas tracker).
Source: EPABUT there are also some eye-opening statistics. Just 2. 5%of the facilities that have submitted data to the EPA are responsible for 45%of the emissions, for example.
And almost all of the United states emissions of trifluoromethane (also known as HFC-23), a potent greenhouse gas, come from just two facilities the Honeywell International plant in Baton rouge, Louisiana,
The flood of data does not mean that scientists can stop measuring greenhouse-gas emissions in the atmosphere.
Pieter Tans and his team at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric administration s Earth System Research Laboratory in Boulder, Colorado, measure greenhouse-gas plumes from major facilities through a network
it is true that greenhouse gas emissions are higher than average. But their work underscores evidence that the environmental impacts of producing the oil sands are primarily local rather than global."
But their analysis did not delve into more subtle comparisons of the overall"life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions of various fuelsoil sands are as thick and sticky as their other moniker tar sands would suggest.
But there are many varieties of crude as well as various production methods that factor into cumulative life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions.
and other factors such as the flaring of the natural gas produced as a by-product, which is common in Nigeria the dirtiest conventional oils could be just as bad or even worse than crude from the oil sands.
which reduces surface disturbance but actually increases greenhouse-gas emissions as a result of higher energy consumption. Environmentalists see the pipeline,
and reduce greenhouse-gas emissions. Governments will surely demand additional detail from scientists in the coming years
Producers are awarded also credits for reducing the flaring of natural gas, which can be used to meet their fuel-quality target.
to reach the 6%greenhouse-gas reduction target, she says
Ash-covered forest is'Permian Pompeii'An ancient swampy forest full of long-extinct plant species has been brought to life through analyses of well-preserved fossils entombed in a layer of volcanic ash.
The findings paint the most detailed compositional picture yet of the'Local Cloud'Â the interstellar cloud of gas in
The consortium is also looking at tackling overall greenhouse-gas emissions using carbon credits, which could be sold to private investors
"The uncertainty of their emission estimates is a great challenge for global greenhouse-gas mitigation.
collecting tissue and ferrying liquid nitrogen to his remote home in Ecuador s Galapagos islands to preserve samples that might one day yield a viable cell culture.
Cruz hurried to secure a local supply of liquid nitrogen. There were two liquid nitrogen tanks on Santa cruz,
used for freezing semen for the artificial insemination of cattle in the highlands. By commandeering one tank,
Cruz got hold of enough liquid nitrogen to keep George s cells safely frozen until top-up stock could be shipped from the mainland.
Several liquid-nitrogen containers are now being relayed back and forth between the continent and the islands to keep the cells frozen until it is decided where they will be stored in the long-term.
a biofuel that could help to cut greenhouse-gas emissions and a route out of poverty for small-scale farmers.
and soil degradation release extra stores of the global-warming gas. A recent life-cycle assessment suggested that it could take up to 220 years for a plantation to become carbon neutral (W. M. J. Achten and L. V. Verchot Ecol.
In January, after the US Environmental protection agency (EPA) found that palm-oil fuels emitted only 11-17%less greenhouse gas than diesel over their entire life cycle,
such as developing metal alloys that can work in deep-water drilling and membranes for purifying oil, gas, water and biofuels.
when the team used best-case greenhouse-gas-saving values for rapeseed production, did they find that the biofuel produces low enough emissions to be regarded as a sustainable biofuel under RED,
but it is a net source of greenhouse-gas emissions. The ABC funds low-interest loans for activities such as agroforestry,
As of 2011, low-carbon agriculture money could be used to fund activities that caused emissions of other greenhouse gases,
and gas resources off the coast of Alaska have been abandoned following damage to oil containers on the spill-cleanup barge Arctic Challenger,
China long ago passed America as the leading emitter of greenhouse gases. Developed world emissions have leveled off
reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and produce the economically-attractive technologies that developing nations must have access to
and natural gas by 2035. Since taking office, electricity production from wind and solar sources has doubled already more than in the United states. We are boosting our use of cleaner fuels,
America has regained its position as the world s leading producer of natural gas. My administration is promoting the safe,
responsible development of America s near 100-year supply of natural gas that will help support more than 600,000 jobs.
but instead to facilitate responsible use of all energy sources from oil and coal and natural gas, to nuclear and hydropower and biofuels, to wind and Solar energy development, economic growth,
from fertilizer manufacture to food storage and packaging, is responsible for up to one-third of all human-caused greenhouse-gas emissions, according to the latest figures from the Consultative Group on International Agricultural
Previous work has looked only at the contribution of agricultural production to greenhouse-gas emissions, including the release of nitrous oxide from soils from farming techniques such as tilling.
2007 and 2008, the researchers found that agricultural production provides the lion s share of greenhouse-gas emissions from the food system,
releasing up to 12,000 megatonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent a year up to 86%of all food-related anthropogenic greenhouse-gas emissions.
and transport contributes a large proportion of the food system s greenhouse-gas emissions, whereas in China, for example, fertilizer manufacture has the biggest role, the researchers found.
and concerns that biofuels may produce greater greenhouse-gas emissions than fossil fuels (see Nature http://doi. org/bmssn7;
or'fracking'to extract natural gas had contaminated groundwater near Pavillion, Wyoming. An independent analysis commissioned by environmental groups and published on 3 october supported the EPA's assessment,
or cancel a mission aimed at pinning down the mysterious carbon sinks that are slowing the rise of greenhouse gases in Earth s atmosphere.
) Neither Japan s existing Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite nor NASA s Orbiting Carbon Observatory-2 (OCO-2),
implementing, and monitoring greenhouse-gas-emission policies, says atmospheric physicist David Crisp of NASA s Jet propulsion laboratory in Pasadena, California,
MÃ lanie Salque, a chemist at the University of Bristol, UK, used gas chromatography and carbon-isotope ratios to analyse molecules preserved in the pores of the ancient clay
United nations data suggest that cities are responsible for some 70%of global greenhouse-gas emissions and that countries with high urbanization rates emit more CO2 per capita (see Urban emitters).
By closely tracking emissions in Los angeles and other mega  cities, researchers hope to test greenhouse-gas monitoring systems that may one day allow scientists to gauge the success of local
To convert atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases into emissions, researchers must understand local meteorology and trace emissions back to their sources.
and forwards through time to understand the greenhouse-gas measurements. The approach builds on the Indianapolis project.
when the combined results of the greenhouse-gas measurements and modelling will enable cities to pinpoint methane emissions from natural-gas leaks, for example,
Ultimately, Miller and Duren envisage a trio of geostationary satellites that would allow constant surveillance of greenhouse-gas emissions not just over Los angeles,
-and-trade system to limit greenhouse-gas emissions remains one of the key failures of Obama s first term.
Since then, her agency has developed the first US greenhouse-gas standards for vehicles, tightened air-quality standards and proposed emissions limits for power plants.
Christine Gregoire, Bob Perciasepe A former governor of Washington, Gregoire signed a 2010 law setting up greenhouse-gas reporting requirements
if unexpected, reduction in US greenhouse-gas emissions during his first term. The decline is in part a result of the economic slowdown and a shift in electricity production from coal to natural gas,
which has become cheap and plentiful in recent years. But policies have helped. These include federal greenhouse-gas standards for vehicles
As a next step, Obama s administration is expected to impose two greenhouse-gas regulations targeted at power plants
encouraging the shift towards natural gas. Other rules could target the oil and gas industry by limiting emissions from refineries and drilling sites.
But these piecemeal regulatory efforts will not be sufficient to reduce emissions by 83%by mid-century a target promised by Obama at the Copenhagen talks.
On 9 Â January, at a meeting of the American Astronomical Society in Long beach, California, astronomers unveiled the telescope s ultra-sharp portrait of the bullets of gas seen in the Orion Nebula.
In the image, clumps of iron gas (blue) race through the nebula, leaving behind pillars of hot, glowing hydrogen gas (orange.
On 27 september 2012, about eight tonnes of highly toxic hydrogen fluoride (HF) gas, which dissolves in the moisture in air to form droplets of corrosive hydrofluoric acid, burst from the Hube Global chemical plant in Gumi.
and in 2011,545 Â companies were registered as producers or distributors of the gas. A mistake by Hube Global workers may have caused the Gumi disaster.
an occupational and environmental physician at Soon Chun Hyang University Hospital in Gumi, is leading a follow-up study of those exposed to the gas."
and hydrate the escaping gas; within 20 minutes, a 0. 8-kilometre evacuation zone was established.
100 Â tonnes of crops and trees killed by the gas, leaving the scene of the accident even more barren than before."
Tropical forests unexpectedly resilient to climate changetropical forests are unlikely to die off as a result of the predicted rise in atmospheric greenhouse gases this century,
"we need to better understand how the atmospheric circulation responds to rising greenhouse-gas concentrations.
thus lowering greenhouse-gas emissions. Energy spending Investment in renewable energy technologies still falls short of the level needed to clean up the global energy system
Options include buying the gas from a local beer and soft-drinks factory and producing it independently,
or to maintain a road for the large trucks that would deliver the gas. So daunting are the challenges that the team plans to ask the engineering arm of the Brazilian military for help.
Wild weather can send greenhouse gases spirallingclimate change has a disconcerting tendency to amplify itself through feedback effects.
and swapping coal for natural-gas in power generation. Climate change More than 80%of Americans believe that the planet is warming
Shale-gas exit Two energy firms Talisman Energy, headquartered in Calgary, Canada, and Marathon Oil, based in Houston, Texas decided last week to cease shale-gas exploration activities in Poland.
The pull out raises further questions about Poland s shale-gas production, which is yet to begin.
In a 2011 review, the US Energy Information Administration estimated that Poland had 5. 3 Â trillion cubic metres of shale gas,
but a 2012 study by the Polish Geological Institute revised this figure to less than 800 Â billion cubic metres.
) Helium sales US legislators voted on 26 Â April to continue selling federal helium gas reserves.
The move follows warnings of a looming shortage in the supply of the gas that researchers and electronics manufacturers use for cooling.
once it had paid off debts of $1. 3 Â billion with revenues from the gases sale.
which are also powerful greenhouse gases, are used in applications such as refrigeration. The deal, announced on 22 Â April,
Brazil reports sharp drop in greenhouse emissionsbrazil s greenhouse-gas emissions fell nearly 39%between 2005 and 2010,
a far cry from the time when tree felling drove roughly two-thirds of the country s greenhouse gas output.
Agriculture now accounts for the largest share of Brazil s greenhouse-gas output. Emissions from the sector increased 5. 2%from 2005 to 2010,
Carbon tax scrapped Australia will shift from a carbon tax to an emissions trading system for greenhouse gases one year ahead of schedule, announced Prime minister Kevin Rudd on 16 Â July.
At the EPA, Mccarthy will oversee regulations to limit greenhouse-gas emissions and to improve water and air quality.
after scientists warned that production of some biofuels drives land clearance that can lead to greater greenhouse-gas emissions than from fossil fuel (see Nature 499,13-14;
and sugar cane in the hope of cutting greenhouse-gas emissions. Yet for more than half a decade, scientists have warned that many food-based fuels might actually be boosting emissions relative to fossil fuels.
NOAAINCREASED emissions of carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide and methane drove atmospheric greenhouse gases to their highest recorded levels in 2012, according to the US Â National Oceanic and Atmospheric administration (NOAA.
In May, atmospheric concentrations of the gas surpassed 400 Â parts per million at NOAA s Mauna loa Observatory in Hawaii (see Nature 497,13-14;
agricultural land is responsible for about 14%of the world s greenhouse-gas emissions, slightly more than the global contribution from planes, trains and automobiles.
On 13 september, researchers announced that they have bred a tropical pasture grass that can significantly suppress greenhouse-gas emissions.
Nitrate can also be converted to nitrous oxide (N2o) gas, which warms the planet 300 times more powerfully than carbon dioxide.
He has used Fermi to discover two galaxy-sized bubbles of ionized gas blowing from the centre of the Milky way,
"Its use produces greenhouse gases and it ruins soil fertility rather than improving it. He points out that many smallholders in Sub-saharan africa can scarcely afford to buy mineral fertilizers anyway.
equivalent to more than double the greenhouse gases emitted last year. But the measurements need to be more precise,
) Japan emissions Japan has scaled back its commitment to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions, according to news reports on 15 Â November.
8 14 november 2013greenhouse gases Atmospheric greenhouse-gas concentrations reached a record high in 2012. According to a 6 Â November report by the World meteorological organization (WMO) in Geneva, Switzerland, carbon dioxide levels climbed last year to an average 393.1 parts per million (p. p m.)141%above preindustrial levels.
Long-lived greenhouse gases including CO2, methane, nitrous oxide and chlorofluorocarbons rose collectively by 2. 6 Â p. p m. to an equivalent CO2 concentration of 475.6 Â p. p m..The observations come from the WMO s global monitoring network,
as well as trends in emissions of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCS) ozone-depleting substances that also trap heat in the atmosphere between 1880 and 2010.
They found that changes in warming coincided with human-initiated adjustments in greenhouse-gas emissions.
But Estrada and his colleagues found that it folllowed a reduction in greenhouse-gas emissions associated with economic downturns
The heat-trapping effect of long-lived greenhouse gases in the atmosphere has grown by nearly one-third between 1990 and 2012.
which aimed to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases. CO2 remains still the main cause of global warming, says Estrada.
But the effects of the Montreal Protocol on climate show that a similar international agreement could be effective against some of the other secondary greenhouse gases,
Furthermore, a 2006 FAO study2 found that the livestock industry is directly or indirectly responsible for 18%of global greenhouse-gas emissions a larger share than all modes of transport combined."
The package also includes recommendations for managing shale-gas extraction by fracking, but not the binding environmental regulation that had been under consideration.
while workers cleaned a tank used to cool gas during the manufacture of silicon. The company is still investigating the cause of the explosion,
Advanced natural-gas power plants are poised to meet the standards but the rule would effectively require new coal-fired plants to capture
Analysis of the gases collected identified a range of compounds, many of which were unknown and were not present in castrated males.
Pollution curbs On 23 Â February, Colorado lawmakers adopted the first regulations in the United states for reducing methane emissions from the oil and gas sector.
Competition from natural gas and renewable energy as well as safety concerns have prompted several US nuclear plants to shut in the past year.
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