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http://qje. oxfordjournals. org/content/121/2/351. full. pdf Sala, Xabier Bringue,"Leisure, interpersonal relationships, learning and consumption:
young people who benefit from entrepreneurial learning develop business knowledge and essential skills and attitudes, including creativity, initiative, tenacity, teamwork, understanding of risk and a sense of responsibility. 18 Cultural/Social framework:
access to specific customer segments Learning about new application fields, access to new markets and sales network to access the market Unclear
Professor of Business Administration, Harvard Graduate school of Business Administration It's time for a fundamental change of thinking in Europe.
How will such skills be generated through formal and lifelong learning, through international exposure, migration and so on?
From Fortress Firms to Cambrian Corporations Mark Esposito, Associate professor of Business and Economics, Grenoble Graduate school of Business, France,
In turn, corporations will invest in co-learning/co-creation environments and competency development for project-focused networks and communities.
and groups stretch towards the next level of learning, competency development and solution design sophistication, with rewards ranging from financial awards to personal development programmes to social recognition
, HULT International Business school, USA Mark Esposito, Associate professor of Business and Economics, Grenoble Graduate school of Business, France,
Young Global Leader Calvin Chin, Founder, Transist, People's republic of china Clayton Christensen, Professor of Business Administration, Harvard Graduate school of Business Administration, USA Jim O'connor
and Dhirubhai Ambani Fellow in Entrepreneurship, Stanford Graduate school of Business USA Habib Haddad, Chief executive officer, Wamda, United arab emirates Jian Han, Associate professor of Management;
and institutional learning. However because of the heterogeneity of the SME population, any policy to increase their innovative capacities must be targeted to meet the needs of a variety of user groups
and learning before they succeed. Also there are no recipes for success that will be valid for all countries and regions. 101.
Cohen, W. and Levinthal, D.,1989, Innovation and Learning: The Two Faces of R&d, Economic Journal, 99 (3), 569-596.
trust, collective learning, and smooth exchange of knowledge. Clusters play a particularly important role in compensating for the resource constraints SMES face
or extra-cluster ties (ECTS), are important gateways of critical knowledge and information (Giuliani & Bell, 2005).
ECTS complement them by bringing in diverse, novel knowledge inputs. 4 From a resource based view (RBV) the network encompassing ICTS and ECTS of a firm can be seen as its resource pool, contributing to the firm s technical know-how, trade contacts,
and capital (Wernerfelt, 1984). In addition, network ties provide legitimacy, increasing a firm s odds of forming partnerships with highly valuable potential partners (Eisenhardt & Schoonhoven, 1996).
This is particularly true for ECTS because assimilating knowledge elements from non-local partners requires distinct capabilities to those required for assimilating knowledge from partners within a firm s own cluster.
and maintain ECTS, to take chances with these ties, and to proactively uncover new opportunities (Covin & Miles, 1999).
and examine their specific roles in generating innovative gains through ICTS and ECTS. Proactiveness represents a first mover orientation of the firm,
We propose that proactiveness exerts only an indirect effect on innovation through ICTS and ECTS,
Such ties (ECTS) not only bring new insights to a firm, but also enable it to think out of the box such that the firm is able to adopt new technologies faster than would be otherwise possible.
In spite of these risks, a firm that nurtures its ties through the necessary investments in relationship building and knowledge sharing might stand to benefit more from its linkages than a firm that makes little investments in its ECTS.
While both ICTS and ECTS carry risks, the risks associated with the latter are likely to be higher due to the relatively higher differences in business practices,
On the other hand, the pay offs to 6 risk taking may also be higher in respect to ECTS, given the potentially novel and non-redundant information that such ties bring about.
Intra-and Extra-Cluster Ties An extensive body of research has highlighted that interactions within a regional cluster provide an effective platform for learning and innovation (Feldman, 1993;
and cooperation, contributing to collective learning, synergies and smooth exchange of knowledge. It therefore creates an informal network of organizations as proximity increases visibility
We now distinguish among intra cluster ties (ICTS) and extra cluster ties (ECTS. We argue that ICTS
and ECTS can be the sources of distinct knowledge. Therefore, we see that ICT and ECT development should be treated as an investment that enhances innovation.
Research has demonstrated that firms that maintain ECTS are looked upon for advice and up to date knowledge by fellow firms who do not maintain such ties (Giuliani,
and most of their knowledge comes from learning from others (Tsui-Auch, 2003). The above arguments suggest that
Therefore, an SME s sustained innovative performance and long run competitive advantage hinges on its ability to complement the intense exchange of knowledge associated with its ICTS with ECTS that bring in information and knowledge that is locally not available (Bathelt, 2004;
Interplay of ICTS and ECTS with Entrepreneurial Orientation To be successful, a firm must possess a certain ability to continually build
In this paper therefore we attempt to integrate the theories related to geographical clusters that emphasize the importance of ICTS and ECTS (Giuliani & Bell, 2005) and the literature on EO that stresses the role of an organization s entrepreneurial culture for firm
and risk taking in relation to a firm s ICTS and ECTS. However, prior literature does emphasize how a firm s absorptive capacity (Larrañeta, Zahra,
and risk taking on a firm s network ties (ICTS and ECTS) in the specific context of an emerging-economy,
and ECTS We argue that proactiveness contributes to a firm s innovative performance indirectly through the firm s ICTS
and ECTS because firms with high levels of proactiveness find opportunities, anticipate future developments, and identify new trends and available niches faster than their competitors (Lumpkin & Dess, 1996).
The resulting ICTS and ECTS therefore represent an important resource for the firm (Eisenhardt & Schoonhoven, 1996),
we propose that proactive orientation enhances innovative performance through its effect on ICTS and ECTS:
How Does Risk Taking Moderate the Effect ICTS and ECTS on Innovative performance? Establishing network ties do not necessarily mean that a firm is fully tapping into the resources available to it through such ties.
This suggests that some level of risk taking is essential for effective use of firms ICTS and ECTS.
When ICTS and ECTS are supported by an adequate degree of risk taking though investment of time, money,
The interplay between risk taking on the one hand and ICTS and ECTS on the other can contribute to innovation, right from the discovery of an opportunity or the conception of an idea to its planning and implementation.
we suggest that the extent to which risk taking is essential can vary for ICTS and ECTS.
Greater trust and the threat of sanction can make risk taking less salient for ICTS compared to for ECTS.
A firm's risk-taking orientation positively moderates the positive impact of its network ties (both ICTS and ECTS) on innovative performance.
A firm's risk-taking orientation has a greater moderating effect on the impact of its ECTS,
ECTS, proactiveness and risk taking affects innovation. Figure 1 Innovative performance and the interplay between ICTS, ECTS,
Proactiveness and Risk-Taking METHODS Proactiveness Intra-cluster ties Extra-cluster ties Innovation Risk taking H1a H1b H1a H1b H2b H2a
so ICTS and ECTS constitute key resources for the firms (Biggs & Messerschmidt, 2005). Research Design and Data Collection We collected the data in 2012 based on an extensive survey in this cluster,
and ECTS by determining the number of partners with which the producers interact (Giuliani & Bell, 2005).
We constructed ICTS and ECTS variables as the number of a firm s diverse set of partners, such as suppliers, distributors,
while that of ECTS is much smaller at about 5. Correlation coefficients are all within acceptable limits, further confirming the absence of multicollinearity.
while ECTS may be mediating the effect of proactiveness on innovative performance, ICTS may not be playing such a role.
n s.).This confirms that ECTS fully mediates the effect of proactiveness on innovative performance, in support of our hypothesis 1b.
to test whether risk taking moderates the effect of ICTS and ECTS on innovative performance,
which stated that a firm s risk-taking orientation has a greater moderating effect on the impact of the firm s ECTS,
Figure 2 The Moderating Effect of Risk-Taking on the Relationship between ECTS and Innovative Performance 18 From figure 2 we can better understand the extent to which risk taking moderates the effect of ECTS on innovative performance.
It shows the predicted innovative performance across a range (from low to high) of ECTS for high-and low-risk taking firms.
The horizontal axis measures the number of ECTS, and the dotted and solid lines respectively represent firms with high and low risk taking.
Both lines have a positive slope indicating the positive effect of ECTS on innovative performance.
underscoring that risk taking substantially moderates the impact of ECTS on innovative performance. This suggests that firms that are greater risk takers benefit the most from increasing the number of their ECTS.
Robustness checks In addition to the tests described earlier, we conducted further tests to conclude that the assumption of BLUE (Best Linier Unbiased Estimator) of OLS is satisfied (Gujarati, 2003).
while the literature on innovation in regional clusters stresses the importance of ICTS and, more importantly, ECTS (Giuliani & Bell, 2005).
and proactiveness interact differently with a firm s ICTS and ECTS. On the one hand, proactiveness is likely to influence innovative performance indirectly through the creation of a firm s ICTS and ECTS.
Risk taking on the other hand positively moderates the impact of ICTS and ECTS. We empirically tested our conjectures on a sample of 120 SMES in a creative-industry manufacturing cluster in an emerging economy, Indonesia.
Our analysis, based on primary data collected through interviews and questionnaires, provided mixed support for our hypotheses.
We found that ECTS mediate the proactive orientation of firms. A proactive-oriented firm is particularly adept at seeking resources from outside its cluster
and therefore may engage actively in search of new ideas outside of their cluster, though ECTS.
We found that risk taking strengthens the relationship between ECTS and innovative performance. For SMES in particular, external knowledge is a key source of innovation (Jacob & Szirmai, 2007;
) In this context, firms that take calculated risk are able to invest resources in their ECTS such that they are able to draw potentially valuable external resources.
Fourth, it was beyond the scope of this study to account for the heterogeneity of a firm s network of ICTS and ECTS
learning versus collective learning processes. Regional Studies, 33 (4), 353-365. Chen, C.-J, . & Huang, J.-W. 2009).
a new perspective on learning and innovation. Administrative Science Quarterly, 35 (1), 128-152. Covin, J,
The micro-determinants of meso-level learning and innovation: evidence from a Chilean wine cluster. doi:
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A Comparative Study of Two Suppliers in Singapore Management Learning, 34 (2), 201-220. Uzzi, B. 1997.
45 Learning models...46 CHAPTER III: THE CONTRIBUTION OF RESEARCH ORGANISATIONS...55 Introduction...55 Policy issues...
72 Learning models...74 CHAPTER IV: ENTREPRENEURSHIP AND START-UPS...83 Introduction...83 Policy issues...83 Assessment of the region...
95 Learning models...98 CHAPTER V: SME DEVELOPMENT IN ANDALUSIA...106 Introduction...106 Policy issues...
113 Learning models...115 CONCLUSIONS...127 Human capital and labour market...128 Contribution of research organisations...
and the EU. The quality of universities needs to be enhanced The university system 10 public universities with a total of approximately 230 000 students depends on the Regional Ministry of Economy,
whether their=clustering‘has fostered a more collaborative culture of learning and knowledge exchange. While in technology parks there is a relatively high level of collaboration with universities
The gaps in current policies and how these gaps could be filled with appropriate references to good practice learning models implemented in other OECD countries;
or grow absorptive learning capacities to make best use of the factors individually and collectively in networks,
and experiential forms of learning by doing. The propensity of firms to be innovative through technological development is inevitably dependent on the skills levels of its employees and its owner-managers.
including learning by researching, learning by interacting and learning by doing, and not always at beginning in terms of early stage, blue-sky research activities.
international'learning model'programmes addressing the policy recommendations. A final chapter summarises main conclusions and policy messages on entrepreneurship promotion and SME development for the region of Andalusia.
the chapter concludes with recommendations illustrated by three international learning models. Policy issues A rich literature debates the role of human capital formation and labour market dynamics in fostering entrepreneurship and innovation.
The idea is to adopt a system of easily comparable university degrees that would allow overcoming the current bureaucratic obstacles to the recognition of degrees and movement of students, researchers, faculty and staff within European universities.
and the University of Malaga number 34.5 Graduate programs also attract an increasing number of foreign students to Andalusia universities:
which are supported by the learning models in the final section. 10 For instance, it recently started the Andalucía Lab,
Learning models East Bay Green Corridor Partnership: Linking workforce and economic development in the regional green economy The East Bay Green Corridor Partnership in the San francisco bay Area provides an example of linking workforce and economic development,
the project-based learning model (Rasmussen & Sørheim, 2006. Programs at both the Chalmers School and the School of economics and Commercial law at the University of Gothenburg are highly selective. 12 A small class of students engage in the entrepreneurship process,
specifically a new learning-by-doing program as has been so successful in Gothenburg, at one of the biggest universities.
Self evaluation Report. Paris: OECD Directorate for Education Programme on Institutional Management in Higher education. Madsen, H.,Neergaard, H,
Three international learning models are described which complement the key policy recommendations in the chapter and provide some insight into how they can be implemented.
The third generation of innovation approaches focuses on the role of shared knowledge and learning processes and the importance of building relationships and social capital between key actors and institutions.
using and interacting (DUI) that draws primarily upon experiencebased learning (Jensen, Johnson, Lorenz, et al.,2004).
involves a process of learning-by-interacting and is much more local in nature (closer to the synthetic knowledge base).
however, the recent self evaluation report prepared for the OECD review of higher education in the region notes that the relation between the universities‘research priorities
The self evaluation report concludes that this shows that the universities do not have their own research strategies,
This example is discussed in further detail in one of the learning models. The introduction of a full-fledged co-op program at several of the regional universities would require some additional public support,
Learning models This part of the chapter presents evidence from three learning modules largely from North america, that provides further support for the policy recommendations set out above.
The Industrial Research Assistance program/National Research Council Description of the Approach The first learning model explores the relevance of Canada‘s Industrial Research Assistance program (IRAP.
learning model provides more details about the University of Waterloo‘s cooperative education program and particularly, the crucial role that it plays in the local innovation system.
while industry support of the program funds the acquisition of technology to enhance classroom learning.
For further information http://www. cecs. uwaterloo. ca/about Future Trends in Science and Technology Parks Description of the approach The third learning model corresponds to the third policy recommendation in that it draws
In this respect, the learning model is more prospective in pointing to work that has recently been carried out on the future evolution of technology parks.
Self evaluation Report. OECD Reviews of Higher education in City and Regional Development. Seville: General Secretariat for Universities, Research and Technology, Regional Ministry for Innovation, Science and Enterprise, Junta de Andalusia.
The chapter concludes with a set of international=learning models‘which are designed to illustrate what is being done in other regions to face up to the entrepreneurship and start-up challenges
Learning models This part of the chapter will provide evidence from three learning models from EU countries that can provide further illustration
www. arbeitsagentur. de Application of Business Incubation using European Best Practice Description of the approach Unlike the preceding two examples this learning model is not based on a concrete best practice.
It makes a number of policy recommendations regarding improving the support environment for the different types of SME before proposing a number of learning models that may offer important lessons for Andalusia.
whether their=clustering‘has fostered a more collaborative culture of learning and knowledge exchange. A recent study that explored the type
There are limitations to how much of a collaborative learning culture can be instilled on SMES from top-down initiatives imposed by regional government agencies
) At the same time, regions that have been most successful in inculcating a better collective learning culture tend to be those that have developed sectorally based support organisations that can provide knowledge,
‘forms of collective learning, characteristic of the industrial districts model cited above. At a general level, SME policy should differentiate more between the different types of firm and the potential for innovation and internationalisation.
More effort could be extended in developing linkages between smaller SMES and larger firms building more effective collective learning networks both within but also outside the region.
and organisations that already exist to promote collective learning activities, though these are seen often as remote from most SMES because of their overt focus upon higher level forms of knowledge creation.
and more=negotiated‘set of collective learning relationships where SME sectoral representatives play a greater part in defining
Cumbers, A. Mackinnon, D. Chapman, K. 2003) Innovation, collaboration and learning in regional clusters: a study of SMES in the Aberdeen oil complex.
Lorenzen, M. 1998 Specialisation and Localised Learning: Six Studies on the European Furniture Industry. Copenhagen Business school Press, Copenhagen.
Maskell, P. 1997 Learning in the village economy of Denmark. In Braczyk, H. J. Cooke, P. and Heydenreich, M. eds) Regional Innovation Systems.
I, Malmberg, A. and Vatne, E. 1998 Competitiveness, Localised Learning and Regional Development: Specialisation and Prosperity in Small Open Economies, London, Routledge.
whether=clustering‘has fostered a more collaborative culture of learning and knowledge exchange. Indeed few firms appear to develop collaborations with other firms co-located in the same park.
and problem-solving or learning-oriented activities centred round the need for upgrading existing sectors could be given equal priority.
However, closer scrutiny shows that some of the essential softer aspects of SME development (e g. collaborative learning
3. Absorptive Capability and Organizational Learning Theory 27 4. Social network in Organizational Contexts 32 5. Entrepreneurial Orientation 35 6. Innovativeness 39 VIII
from innovativeness to foreign markets 95 2. 2. Learning-by-exporting: from export activities toward innovativeness 99 3. Research Design 100 3. 1. Database 100 3. 2. Variables 102 4. Analysis and Results 106
Table 4. Absorptive capability (ACAP) and organizational learning (OLER: a brief of main studies 30 Table 5. Social network in CE:
Theoretical Framework Resource-based view Contingency Theory Resource-based view Social network Theory Resource-based view Absorptive capability and Learning Theory Research
2006) Environment dynamism, environment hostility Strategic decision-making, strategic formation mode, strategic learning from failure, firm size,
and Organizational Learning Theory Absorptive capability and organizational learning have been used in diverse and significant organizational phenomena.
Moreover, we observed that most empirical studies show significant relationships between absorptive capability and organizational learning,
and summarizes representative studies using absorptive capabilities and organizational learning approaches in different fields of organizational management.
The Learning Theory, in essence, suggests that an organization learns when its routines, systems, and policies assimilate activities and experiences (Grant, 1996).
the greater its learning is. This point of view is consistent with previous theory, which holds that the amount of information learned
In the international entrepreneurship context, the firm's effort to learn from its foreign presence, international learning effort (Sapienza et al.
and highlights the idea of an absorptive-based view and learning theory as a framework for theory and hypotheses regarding international business.
2000 p. 926). 30 Table 4. Absorptive capability (ACAP) and organizational learning (OLER: a brief of main studies Study Theoretical approach Treatment/modeling Outcome/effects Cohen and Levinthal (1990) ACAP Model of firm investment in R&d predicting how absorptive capacity
Resource-based view ACAP as predictor of OLER (the study examined the role that partner characteristics play in the success of interorganizational learning (at a dyadic unit of analysis). The ability of a firm to learn from another
International business The study's model proposes that firm international expansion promotes technological learning, which in turn enhances performance.
Technological learning has a positive effect on firm performance; International diversity and mode of entry have a positive, direct effect on firm performance,
in addition to their more indirect effect of increasing technological learning. 31 Table 4. Continued Study Theoretical approach Treatment/modeling Outcome/effects Lane et al.
International business Test a model of international joint ventures learning and performance that segments ACAP into the three components proposed by Cohen and Levinthal (ability to:
The findings offer a new perspective on international joint ventures learning and performance as well as a initial insights into how those relationship change over time.
and entrepreneurial orientation are associated with learning activities. Early internationalization is positively related to learning effort; Entrepreneurial orientation is positively related to learning effort.
Source: Self-elaborated 32 4. Social network in Organizational Contexts Approximately 30 years ago, an important new area of research within the organizational context emerged.
The starting point of the study of social networks was drawn on a broader revitalization of the field of economic sociology (Hoang and Antoncic, 2003.
and strategic learning from failure. Therefore, EO and growth (measured by sales growth, in this study) were related more positive among firms that employ autocratic decision-making and that exhibit an emergent strategy-formation process.
) Consistent with the resource-and learning-based view, we focus on the relationship between innovativeness and export activity.
The greater innovativeness of the firm, the higher the percent of their sales abroad is. 2. 2. Learning-by-exporting:
Hence, at the same time, the effects of export activity on firms'innovativeness might be investigated from the perspective on learning-by-exporting.
Zahra and George, 2002) is a critical component to learning and innovation. Despite not being a longitudinal study,
2005) that there is a learning effort in foreign markets by companies. Thus, companies may learn directly from foreignmarket experience and indirectly via observation of foreign companies (Johanson and Vahlne, 1991.
Consistent with the learning-based view, obviously this is a potential option. Despite, not having extensive literature examining the reverse relationship,
Consistent with the learning-by-exporting view, and in accordance with previous research, the following hypothesis can be addressed.
Likewise, firms in more knowledge-intense industries may be inclined more to exert learning effort (Sapienza et al.
our findings might be consistent with the existence of learning-byexporting emphasized in recent literature (Salomon and Jin, 2008;
In this sense, our recommendation is that managers in international small firms must consider the existence of learning-by-exporting,
which provide insights into the impact of EO on knowledge acquisition (Kreiser, 2011), the relationship between EO, experimental learning and acquisitive learning (Zhao et al.,
) In this sense, future studies should include a longitudinal perspective observing the effects of learning-by-exporting on a firm's innovativeness (e g.,
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learning capability, knowledge, threshold, and patterns of growth. Research Policy, 39,278-289. Lechner, C.,Dowling, M. 2003.
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Entrepreneurial orientation, organizational learning, and performance: evidence from China. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 35,293-317.156 157 APPENDIX Appendix 1. Confirmatory factor analysis EO Model fit EO construct Recommended level CFA level CFI
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