It can be accessed through the Europa server (http://europa. eu). Cataloguing data can be found at the end of the publication.
and Government officials and key elements of the declaration are being included in output of the Innovation High Level Panel
Martin Curley, Vice president & Director, Intel Labs Europe, Intel. Corp. Foreword 5 Uptake Open Innovation 2. 0 in your projects The Open Innovation 2. 0 concept was endorsed at the Open Innovation 2. 0 conference in May
of Finance and Public Administration, Spain myriam. corral@minhap. es Curley Martin Intel Labs Europe & National University of Ireland, Maynooth, Innovation Value Institute
martin. g. curley@intel. com den Ouden Elke Eindhoven University of Technology, Intelligent Lighting Institute e d. ouden@tue. nl Golebiowska-Tataj
Open hardware development is emerging in tangible products and is very interesting from the investors'perspective,
Important boost for this sector to grow is the open plug-in platform for devices both from hardware and system level.
such as the Intel. Labs Joint Pathfinding process create mechanisms that are able to span the socalled valley of death that lies between research
A second core characteristic of the OI2 paradigm is the use of the quadruple helix model where government, industry,
HEE is especially important as according to a report from the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor, HEE's contribute about 80%of all new jobs created.
Vice president & Director, Intel Labs Europe, Intel. Corporation Chair, Open Innovation Strategy and Policy Group martin. g. curley@intel. com Bror Salmelin, MSC Eng.
Adviser, Innovation Systems, EC Directorate General CONNECT Board member, Open Innovation Strategy and Policy Group bror. salmelin@ec. europa. eu 19 Open Innovation 2. 0 Fundamental Change in Innovation Processes*Abstract
and retrieve relevant information from back office servers. NFC both its reader-writer function and its card emulation capability was used also for smart couponing services as well. 30 O P E N I N N O V
and an embedded computer that remotely communicates with the Smart Office application server, which runs local Linksmart middleware and the Nosql system database.
Figure 9: The Environmental Services Use Case The Healthcare Services Use Case The Cardiovascular diseases (CVDS) are globally number one among those causing death:
when software applications bring new knowledge to people. There could be other dimensions like a‘societal'dimension inn order to assess, from UX point of view,
'Proceedings ACHI 2012, The Fifth International Conference on Advances in Computer-Human Interactions, Valencia, Spain, January 2012.12) IS°FDIS 9241-210 (2009.‘
IEEE Computer Society, WASHINGTON DC, USA, 254-259. DOI=10.1109/ICSS. 2013.35 http://dx. doi. org/10.1109/ICSS. 2013.35 Contact Dr Marc Pallot Senior Research Associate Nottingham University
It seems to occur that our smart phones are literally becoming the key not only to our virtual world,
This article is about the opportunity for (open) hardware development in the financial industry inspired by open innovation 2. 0 and consumer needs.
human ingenuity at its best. 3d printing is entering our living space, and all kinds of labs including the Fab Labs,
as open design and hardware labs, are giving us access to tools for developing hardware.
Most of these technologies are using Intel's brand-spanking-new‘Edison'microchip, the company's smallest computer.
It boasts Intel's extremely low-power Quark processor Bluetooth, and Wi-fi connectivity to communicate with other devices.
and we have seen these new hardware tools popping up due to several reasons. Even software developers, like XL Team in Romania, start to hire electronic designers to prepare for the wearable revolution (2). One aspect is
whenever a massive change occurs in technology or in the interfaces offered to people: you can then expect to find a flurry of innovation.
looking beyond the software and inside technology and enter the world of hardware. We have seen high adoption rates of banking apps,
but the momentum is rising very quickly. 39 One of the first disruptive hardware tools built might be Square (2). Jack Dorsey,
the creator of Twitter, was the first to develop a mobile device for banking activities, launched in May 2010.
and Canada to accept credit cards through their iphone and Android phones, either by swiping the card on the Square device
Might the entry into hardware be a good move for financial institutions? Selling hardware is totally different from a service offering.
The costs of revenue is high in any device manufacturing segment because fixed costs, works-in progress and overhead are compared very high
to software. Often, regular hardware and peripherals are being sold at rock-bottom prices. This is the case in the printing industry.
The high mark up items are the software, accessories and ink. It's the same model used by the auto and telecom industries.
Companies like Apple have to sell their, new or upgraded, products again and again within a year or two.
For the software industry micro-transactions for updates are more common and are much more frequent.
And there is a good margin behind it, often close to 90 percent, like with Microsoft. So where does this lead to the financial industry?
Not entering the market? Leaving it to parties like Sumup, Paypal and Square? This might not be advisable.
hardware is the new software. Hardware is a good way to create connectivity with the client.
We see a potential huge market that might be beneficial as well: security is becoming a large concern for the consumer.
Some of the existing peripherals could already be used for that matter, others still have to be built. Executive Interview According to Malcolm Harden CEA, Vice-president CGI Federal, Chairman CGI Global Technology Council,
and 3d printing doesn't seem to match to this requirement. He expects the healthcare sector to be influenced majorly by the hardware revolution.
Geographically, Central and South america, due to its uncapped economic potential, has a tremendous potential, also in the long term.
Interaction with hardware has a huge potential to change the entire business model of the economic region:
this kind of devices can be expected to be integrated into peripherals or even brought into the smart phone.
We expect the hardware device to be the next wave in the financial industry. Especially with the NFC chip and other new to come biometrical sensors showing up in phones the coming years,
2008 and then morphed into a social, political and economic challenge to the world and in particular to the European union and its core institutions and principles, exposed essential problems and unsustainable developments in many European countries.
and implementation of research and innovation strategies and has been placed at the core of the new European cohesion policy as the main driver for the achievement of the Europe 2020 strategy objectives from a regional perspective.
as well as IBM's Watson Research Centre, Stanford's Centre for Integrated Systems and similar R & D organisations.
Policy initiatives such as S3 allow regional and national policymakers to focus on a number of core processes in the knowledge economy and society,
catalysts and accelerators of exploration and exploitation dynamics) that could substantially empower any Quadruple Helix RIS3 strategy (26)( see Figure 3). Figure 3: 48 O P E N I N
The case study of the technology centre of KETEK, active in a peripheral non-university region, can be considered as positioned at the centre of the innovation system in the region,
men with beards and ponytails who take time out from their computer screens to show off their collections of action figures.
Kajak University offers courses in video games. Finns have a comparative advantage in the four things that make for great games bloodsoaked storylines (all those sagas
'The arrival of the ipad and its apps allowed the Finnish industry to break out of its frozen ghetto.
'Screens on the wall display how Supercell is doing against its rivals in real time. The gamesmasters talk about IPOS and‘massive growth curves'.
Today fashionable young people worship successful tech entrepreneurs such as Niklas Zennström, the cofounder of Skype,
It raised capital from outside investors such as Microsoft, which chipped in $42m. Rovio now has 500 employees in Finland
Some business-related‘catalysts'activities foster innovation linked with entrepreneurial activities in the industrial setting.
The CLC Iberia office is located within the UPC campus in Barcelona in the same building as the creativity departments of Intel and Gallina Blanca.
The European commission continuously monitors and adjusts its instruments for addressing the identified grand challenges, and achieving the mutually set strategic goals for research and innovation through large scale initiatives like the Innovation Union strategy and the European Digital Agenda.
and increasing the effectiveness of business processes (1). One of the interesting features of the FI-PPP programme is that it develops a European level common technology platform offering generic, reusable software components
and technology platform (FI-WARE) as well as common software components called‘generic enablers'aiming for wide use across a range of sector applications,
IBM, Nokia, Google, Facebook, Microsoft, Apple) show, the platform owner potentially gains substantial advantages in terms of value creation and market dominance.
I O N y E A r B o O k 2 0 1 4 flat model emerge as in open source communities,
which can lead to the creation of core and marginal communities with various rules and levels of commitment within the ecosystems.
job protection and job-training stimulus. Fiscal policy was at the core of the Chilean government response to the crisis,
and the terms of trade rose by 2. 9%.The Australian economy grew by 1. 2%during 2009 the best performance in the OECD (5). The outlook for private business investment improved,
Computer skills as query languages, database design, mining and interactive data analysis, scripting or programming languages, expert systems and machine learning, etc.
The hardware and software requirements and the quality levels needed to deploy Onstar safely as a vehicle-based application are quite impressive,
Airports, like cities, also require a common open operating system that allows for the sharing of data between artifacts
and it is now spread globally as an open-source choice for virtual worlds. CIE with its collaborators is involved now in European Future Internet project FIWARE to further develop the platform,
access covering broadly the Oulu city area with 30 000 users/month of the hotspot network (11) UBI hotspot Network of interactive public displays for collecting citizen's opinion with 30
or smart textiles, are fabrics that enable digital components (including small computers), and electronics to be embedded in them.
products and services makes the following essential observation about the core idea that is the basis for the Openeyif concept:
the Open Innovation, Open source and ICT Infrastructure Community and the Start-up Ecosystems in different networks around Europe to submit their innovative ideas within the subsequent Open Calls.
Abstract The lighting industry is in transition from a hardware only industry to a full solution and services industry.
such as in the design of lighting services and in the development of software applications for smart solutions:
and require different skills than the traditional ones in the hardware related industry. Introduction Last year, in the Open Innovation Yearbook 2013, we presented the case of participative innovation in smart urban lighting,
interactive displays, touch screens, and smart phones. Many devices collect or use data and are connected therefore (the Internet of things).
ICT On the ICT level the connection is made with data and software applications. The data that is collected through different devices contains e g. time, people counting or proximity measurements, weather information, movements, energy consumption, camera data, etc.
or correlations that can be used for various software applications. Services At this level meaningful services are developed that provide value for the relevant stakeholders.
securing intellectual property and providing hardware to the market. This hardware will become mainstream, easier to produce in lowcost countries
and will create little jobs in Western europe. However, in the field of meaningful applications designed to address societal needs there are more opportunities for new jobs, especially in the domain of developing new services with lighting.
The type of jobs is shifting from hardware related jobs towards the design of lighting services as well is to the development of software applications for smart lighting solutions:
and require different skills than the traditional jobs in the hardware related industry. 121 The development of meaningful applications requires a changing attitude interconnecting the different levels:
The hardware infrastructure allows for such flexibility. Increasing Safety in an Entertainment District The city of Eindhoven is currently implementing its vision and roadmap for urban lighting.
determination of origin and counting of mobile devices to establish where groups of people come from,
New Professions Looking at the two cases presented above we can see a shift in the type of skills required from the more hardware related to new ones that focus more on the ICT and services part.
The renewal rate for the software and applications is even shorter. The data scientist might find new emerging patterns that spark the development of new applications.
Similar renewal rates may apply for software applications build on open platforms in the field of smart urban lighting.
Yet, despite our awareness of the core assertion of open innovation thinking that‘the assets necessary for creating innovation will not necessarily be collocated with those for commercialising them'our openness to harness the power of the crowd has embedded not itself as widely
had we been tasked with predicting the success of Wikipedia over Microsoft Encarta, the latter probably would have been considered the likelier of the two candidates to succeed,
as Microsoft is funded a well company with extensive resources and an established infrastructure. Yet reality shows the opposite:
One useful visualisation tool to illustrate this is one developed by IBM's Institute for Business Figure 3:
IBM graphic Source: IBM Institute for Business Value analysis, 2012 131 identify the practical application of the distinctive crowd asset classes that may have value for us.
Let us consider some of the generic opportunities that present themselves. As demonstrated in our examples,
'Two executives came up with the idea for enhancing the company's tax preparation software for tax 132 O P E N I N N O V A t I O N y
and many people went on to purchase the software as well. The organisation is rolling this insight out into new products (8). The concept of collaboration is exemplified in the ideas of the shared or collaborative economy.
Technological innovations like 3d printing underscore the growth of collaborative production and distributed infrastructures. For small businesses
and open source code writing, where the skills are vested individually but create value collectively and are bound collaboratively to a common end.
open source production, and collaborative consumption models that require a group of participants to deliver. The crowd asset model maps the breadth, spread and specific dynamics of the way in
Users (mainly inventors) submit ideas through the crowd sourced panel and the organisation selects which ideas it wants to bring to market.
That just isn't our core business'(10. While consumer applications may not be GE's core business,
the Quirky team understands the brand value GE brings to the table. Through this collaboration, customers are able to purchase innovative products from a household brand
what is now known as Local Motors, the world's first open source car company. The company brings together a global community of designers, engineers, fabricators and car enthusiasts to build new automobiles through distributed manufacturing channels.
As part of their partnership with Siemens, Local Motors uses their computer-aided design (CAD) software and recommends the software to its global community of 30 000 designers.
Local Motors also works with large enterprises through hosted challenges, whereby the enterprise may outsource a design task to the Local Motors community of designers in exchange for cash prizes.
In the final stage, the Army will prototype the products using 3d printing and other technologies within the REF expeditionary laboratory.
By engaging in an open exchange and collaboration in developing open source thinking on this subject we will embed
if you look at the successful international services, like social media or search engines, you realise that somehow these services have managed to go passed and beyond these problems.
‘open source'or anything we academic lawyers would have thought had paved the way to the Internet future.
with what resources we take as the core. Data is one of them, design another.
in order to uncover a core need and an unexpected insight that will drive innovation. User+need+insight define a point of view (POV),
Explaining to Generation Y that there was something like Gopher, the game Snake on your Nokia phone or the newness of ecommerce in the previous millennium,
In the core of the social and economic impact of Open Innovation 2. 0 are shared the values,
when we bring everyone together (2). In the core of the policy makers is to make the citizens happy in their ways of living,
Many large firms such as IBM, Procter & gamble or Eli lilly have adopted already successfully the open innovation approach.
2008), virtual worlds (Kaplan and Haenlein, 2010; Kohler et al. 2011), or idea and design contest and tournaments (Morgan and Wang, 2010) to support
2013 16 open source software communities on the Web can help SMES overcome financial constraints and access external competencies and valuable complementary assets (e g.,
However, potential of Web 2. 0 innovation platforms and communities to support the open innovation activities of SMES outside the special case of the software industry. 2. Empirical study 2. 1
and core customer segments and are confronted suddenly with new market conditions. With regard to the innovation process, the search for suitable markets, adequate determination of the appropriated pricing strategies and selection of marketing tools for effective communication have been identified as obstacles.
Co-creation in virtual worlds: the design of the user experience, MIS Quarterly, 35 (3), pp. 773-788.41.
Is Open source Software about Innovation? Collaborations with the Open source Community and Innovation Performance of Software Entrepreneurial Ventures, Journal of Small Business Management, 50 (2), pp. 340-364.61.
Plehn-Dujowich J. M. 2009. Firm size and types of innovation, Economics of Innovation & New Technology, 18 (3), pp. 205-223.62.
These stories about applying open innovation in small firms successfully can barely be compared with the open innovation ventures of large manufacturing companies, such as Xerox, P&g, Philips, Lego, and IBM.
because the open innovation network is at the core of the business model. The existing business model (innovation) frameworks do not pay attention to strategic partners
Based on a combination of two technologies (displays and three-dimensional scanning the company wants to change both the physical shop and the shopping experience.
After scanning, customers see themselves on large screens as a virtual, three-dimensional model dressed in clothes from various collections that the shop offers.
but the software also can make choices for the customer depending in the skeleton, weight, age,
It is remarkable that the firms we interviewed did not diversify over time into new businesses that were not or only weakly related to their core business.
innovative company should stick to its core products. First, new product markets have their own specific challenges.
It had to team up with different parties to develop the two basic technologies (displays and 3d scanning) to make virtual shopping possible.
The Strada radiator had a panel on top of the radiator that users sometimes had to remove to clean the battery
To remove this panel most people at home used a screwdriver, which would often damage the varnish.
Based on an idea from Product Days, a small pop-up device was installed now to remove the panel easily without using tools.
the acquisition of innovative, externally developed machinery, equipment, and software (iv; the acquisition of external knowledge through licenses or other types of contracts (v). A company's external knowledge acquisition is captured by calculating the average score of the five questionnaire items registering a firm's use of these external
The core ideas of this book are summarised in the following HBR article: Other definitions of open innovation have been provided by Johnson.
three core process archetypes, R&d Management Conference RADMA, Lisbon, Portugal. 30 Larsen P. and Lewis, A. 2007), How award-winning SMES manage the barriers to innovation, Creativity
The idea was to build a better way to recommend movies to its users than its own software.
and computer engineers called Bellkor's Pragmatic Chaos. The group developed software that is at least 10%more accurate than Netflix's current software (Cinematch) at predicting which movies customers will like based on their past preferences.
EIM bv does not accept responsibility for printing errors and/or other imperfections. 2 Open innovation in SMES:
but focuses only on companies that develop open source software. Lecocq & Demil (2006) study the U s. tabletop role-playing game industry,
such as in the open source software (Henkel, 2004; Hienerth, 2006. This practice is also becoming fashionable in other industries such as car design, electronic games,
Henkel (2004) argues that firms (adopting open source strategies) may make their technology available to the public
over a period of three weeks, by means of computer assisted telephone interviewing (CATI. All respondents were small business owners or managers and innovation decision-makers.
Table 7. Classification of open innovation motives Category Description Control Increased control over activities, better organization of complex processes Focus Fit with core competencies,
Open source software from commercial firms Tools, complements, and collective invention. Zfb-Ergänzungsheft. Henkel. J.,2006.
The case of embedded Linux, Research Policy 35,953 969. Herstatt, C.,Von Hippel, E.,1992.
Determinants of innovation capability in small electronics and software firms in southeast England. Research Policy 31,1053 1067.
Melding proprietary and open source platform strategies. Research Policy 32,1259 1285. West, J.,Callagher, S.,2006.
the paradox of firm investment in open-source software. R&d Management 36,319-331.45 The results of EIM's Research Programme on SMES and Entrepreneurship are published in the following series:
Evidence from Global Entrepreneurship Monitor Data H200809 25-7-2008 The Entrepreneurial Adjustment Process in Disequilibrium:
These stories about applying open innovation in small firms successfully can barely be compared with the open innovation ventures of large manufacturing companies, such as Xerox, P&g, Philips, Lego, and IBM.
because the open innovation network is at the core of the business model. The existing business model (innovation) frameworks do not pay attention to strategic partners
Based on a combination of two technologies (displays and three-dimensional scanning the company wants to change both the physical shop and the shopping experience.
After scanning, customers see themselves on large screens as a virtual, three-dimensional model dressed in clothes from various collections that the shop offers.
but the software also can make choices for the customer depending in the skeleton, weight, age,
It is remarkable that the firms we interviewed did not diversify over time into new businesses that were not or only weakly related to their core business.
innovative company should stick to its core products. First, new product markets have their own specific challenges.
It had to team up with different parties to develop the two basic technologies (displays and 3d scanning) to make virtual shopping possible.
The Strada radiator had a panel on top of the radiator that users sometimes had to remove to clean the battery
To remove this panel most people at home used a screwdriver, which would often damage the varnish.
Based on an idea from Product Days, a small pop-up device was installed now to remove the panel easily without using tools.
the acquisition of innovative, externally developed machinery, equipment, and software (iv; the acquisition of external knowledge through licenses or other types of contracts (v). A company's external knowledge acquisition is captured by calculating the average score of the five questionnaire items registering a firm's use of these external
The core ideas of this book are summarised in the following HBR article: Other definitions of open innovation have been provided by Johnson.
three core process archetypes, R&d Management Conference RADMA, Lisbon, Portugal. 30 Larsen P. and Lewis, A. 2007), How award-winning SMES manage the barriers to innovation, Creativity
The idea was to build a better way to recommend movies to its users than its own software.
and computer engineers called Bellkor's Pragmatic Chaos. The group developed software that is at least 10%more accurate than Netflix's current software (Cinematch) at predicting which movies customers will like based on their past preferences.
In the two categories of IT hardware and software, there were a few European companies that spent more than €1 billion on R&d in the year 2004.
In the IT hardware category, just four companies, from Finland (Nokia), Sweden (Ericcson), France (Alcatel) and Germany (Infineon Technologies) are recorded against six in the USA (Intel, HP, Cisco, Motorola, Texas instruments
1 The situation is even worse in software and computer services. SAP was the only European company spending more than €1 billion for R&d,
while Microsoft, IBM and Oracle combined spent ten times that amount. In addition, there were 26 companies from the USA and three from Japan spending more than €100 million, against only six in Europe.
In the software sector there are 14 US companies and six from Europe (SAP, UBISOFT Entertainment, Dassault systemes, Sage,
Amdocs and Invensys). There are few European companies who are not only in the top list of software producers,
IT and long-term scientific performance 522 Science and Public Policy August 2011 champions, such as Bull in France, Olivetti in Italy, Siemens nixdorf in Germany,
Second, data on patents may be criticized as less relevant for some subsectors of IT, such as software,
1) computers and automated business equipment,(2) microorganisms and genetic engineering,(3) lasers, and (4) semiconductors.
European commission, 2007: 54) Looking at patent data, it appears that in the patent class computer and automated business equipment the share of the EU-27 (the current 27 members of the EU) increases
EU-27 is less specialised in high technology fields such as‘pharmaceuticals',‘computers, office machinery, '‘telecommunications'and‘electronics'than in medium technology fields such as‘general machinery',‘machine tools',‘metal products'and‘transport.
1999) calculated the long-run market shares in international trade for core ICT hardware, including computers and peripherals, semiconductors,
The EU has some excellent software companies with strong positions in their subsectors or niches there are just too few compared to the US.
Examples include SAP in enterprise software, Autonomy in unstructured search and Sage in accounting and customer relationship management software for smaller businesses.
European commission, 2010: 37) In addition, Europe is relatively strong in embedded software, particularly in real-time applications for industrial automation, thanks to its leadership in the fields of mechanical and electrical engineering.
However, this software is sold not typically separately from the equipment. Again, the reasons behind large differences in performance between large markets and niches are worth exploring.
and discovered that the sectors accounting for the largest effect were computer and office equipment and electronic components.
The case of Microsoft in operating systems is an obvious example. Not surprisingly, in mobile phone technology Europe gained a leadership position also because of a first mover advantage in defining the global system for mobile communications (GSM) standard.
Third, one might refer to the linguistic heterogeneity of European countries to explain the difficulty in producing standardised or packaged products in software.
According to this interpretation, European software companies would be globally competitive, but they specialize in customised software products,
which require adaptation to the customer and the use of national languages. In addition, European markets are fragmented still in terms of regulation (particularly in services),
A few years ago we asked a small panel of scientific authorities in computer science, in both European and US universities,
Luckily, computer science and the computer industry have been the object of a massive historical literature, that has highlighted several key factors.
and marketing investment by large companies such as IBM (Flamm, 1988; Chandler, 1990; Langlois, 1992; Mowery, 1996;
University research played a key role in the growth of the US computer industry. Universities were important sites for applied,
as well as basic, research in hardware and software and contributed to the development of new hardware.()
Before that, IBM had developed the automatic sequencecontrolled calculator (ASCC), known as Mark I, which was still an electromechanical machine.
resulting from on a joint effort between IBM and the University of Harvard, which was established in 1939 (Moreau, 1984.
Ceruzzi, 1998: 25) Eckert and Mauchly soon established a company that developed the UNIVAC, the first large-scale computer,
IBM hired Von neumann as a consultant in January 1952 and started a collaboration with his organization, the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton (Pugh, 1995.
Another small company, Bendix, built the G-15 computer, based on Harry Huskey's 1953 design at Wayne State university, Detroit, MI.
Thus in the early days of the computer industry we witness many universities building their own machines, based on Von neumann or Turing architectures.
The role of universities greatly increased after a commercial move by IBM. In 1954 IBM delivered the 650
a machine that was installed mainly for business purposes in a thousand companies. Thomas Watson Jr decided that a university could benefit from a discount up to 60%on the price of the 650
Meanwhile, US universities started to be involved in research on the component technologies underlying the computer.
IT and long-term scientific performance 526 Science and Public Policy August 2011 of Illinois, Harvard and Massachusetts institute of technology (MIT) worked on magnetic core memories (Pugh, 1984;
While the single most important language, FORTRAN, was invented by John Backus at IBM in 1954 (Pugh, 1995),
and COBOL was promoted by a group of universities and computer users which held a meeting at the Computation Center of the University of Pennsylvania in 1959.
however, particularly after the development of the software industry. In December 1968 IBM was forced by the US authorities to unbundle the commercialization of software from sales of hardware products, giving origin to a separate industry,
which then propagated in several application areas (Mowery, 1996). In many cases the development of software was the product of a large-scale entrepreneurial effort,
carried out by thousands of individual programmers. As Campbell-Kelly (2003: 209) puts it: In the late 1970s, a typical software development firm consisted of one or two programmers with strong technical skills but no manufacturing, marketing or distribution capabilities.
This trend was reinforced after the emergence of the personal computer (PC) in the 1980s, but also in the huge growth of the videogame industry and of software applications after the internet revolution.
The creative skills of small firms were exploited commercially by larger firms, or the former were acquired,
or disappeared. Universities did not play a direct scientific role in this massive bottom-up effort, but were a crucial element for the mass culture that fostered entrepreneurial activities:
In the software industry, most of the R&d is done by youthful programmers, usually not trained past the bachelor's degree level,
who crank out code in an intuitive but effective fashion. Campbell-Kelly, 2003: 308) Programmers do not necessarily come from postgraduate studies at universities,
but benefit from an environment in which new ideas are generated and debated on a continuous basis. Without such an academic background it would not be possible to explain the hacker movement,
in the heroic period until 1959 they were involved directly in full-scale design and prototype production of computers,
while after the emergence of a dedicated computer industry they were committed rather to fundamental research, education, scientific advice and consultancy.
Europe During WWII all large European countries had a promising start with the computer industry and built up foundations that could evolve into industrial competitiveness.
In 1937 The english mathematician Alan Turing published the first theoretical model of a modern computer, the universal Turing machine (Davis, 2000.
As early as 1948 a prototype of the first completely electronic storedprogram computer, conformed to the Von neumann architecture,
In the same year the electronic delay storage automatic computer (EDSAC) was realized at Cambridge. Here Maurice Wilkes developed ideas that prepared for high-level programming languages,
Thus in the early years of the computer era the UK was head-to-head with the USA.
it was the Europeans rather the Americans who were the first in the world to make a computer as a commercial product.
A commercial computer, known as LEO, was installed at a company in 1951, well before ENIAC (Campbell-Kelly, 1989;
one of the first to use ferrite-core memories. According to Mounier-Kuhn, 1994: 214: in 1960 Compagnie des Machines Bull was one of the world's leading manufacturers of data processing machinery.
Bull with the Gamma 60 was one of the competitors for the tender issued by the US Atomic energy commission (AEC) for a machine 100 times faster than any then existing, alongside UNIVAC and IBM.
Here the construction of computers started with the pioneering work of Konrad Zuse well before WWII.
In addition, the scientific foundations for the modern notion of software were established by academic groups in the 1940s and early 1950s.
School, Harvard university, IBM and the Bell laboratories in the USA (Williams, 2000. In the early history of computing technology Europe and the USA were equally competitive.
and large computer manufacturers emerged. However, a sharp difference seems to emerge between the evolution of the technology in the USA and Europe.
(or have their students develop) software code in order to test their results. This is facilitated by the fact that the test of theories can be done in a relatively cheap way, by writing and running programs
This makes it possible to move increasingly far from the physical implementation on a hardware without losing the relevant aspects of the description.
For example, it is possible to decouple the program from the underlying hardware representation (Shaw, 2004.
As a prominent theoretical computer scientist summarized: The computer originated in the academic environment. Zuse and IBM are special cases.
From the Moore School and the University of Iowa, from Aiken and Wilkes to Algol, the vast majority of the essential steps were achieved on academic grounds.
Neither the car nor the aircraft have come up this way. And there are very good reasons.
One certainly is that the computer has an essential abstract side, most visible in programming,
Computer scientists imagined‘packets'of information flowing through pipes, and they (symbolically) worked out the consequences of that idea to determine the new laws those flows of information must obey.
At the same time, the symbolic representational nature of computer programs made it possible to explore hundreds of different directions at relatively low cost.
The abstract nature of computer objects (e g. data, procedures) allowed a process of progressive transformation of many fields of reality,
New evidence on scientific excellence in computer science An analysis of the CVS of top computer scientists An interesting perspective is to look at the large community of computer scientists and at their own self-validation processes.
In the period 1980 1989, a period of explosion of computer science and information technology, US Table 2. Distribution of degrees of top computer scientists by geographical area Area Phd degree Master degree
Patterns of disciplinary mobility Where do top computer scientists come from in terms of disciplinary affiliations? The data do not allow a full-scale analysis,
One-fifth of the top scientists also actively produce complete software and mention it in their CVS.
Number of ISI international papers 983 1 284 24.73 34.59 Other research output Software 204 1 56 4. 14 6. 081
For a large industry such as the computer industry, an overall ecology of abstract ideas, engineering capabilities, technical skills,
as well as software development and patents. Computer science has been based on a fierce competition for students and researchers worldwide.
But European universities have not been attractive for top computer scientists and increasingly have also become less attractive for students.
Governments considered the computer industry a sector that could be supported with the old model of industrial policy:
When the two radical innovations of the PC (in the 1980s) and the internet (in the 1990s) were introduced
Our conjecture (admittedly, only that is that US service companies were ready to jump on the new waves of IT associated to the PC
A computer pioneer's talk: pioneering work in software during the 50s in Central europe. In History of Computing:
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