) and research and development (R&d) expenditure, thus contributing most to the development of the EU knowledge economy.
highly digitisable nature of the goods it produces combined T Fabienne Abadie (corresponding author) is at European Commisssio Directorate Joint research Centre, Institute for Prospectiiv Technological Studies, Edificio EXPO
and also identify priorrit areas for R&d policy-making. The methodoloog developed was based on the adaptive foresight framework
we preseen our methodology, analysing its most important Fabienne Abadie is a scientific officer at the Joint research Centre Institute for Prospective Technological Studies workiin on techno-economic foresight studies and the impact of ICTS on the Information society.
in particular, identifying the potential for disruptions, leading to policy formulaatio and recommendations for European and national policies, in particular R&d policy.
R&d policy setting. In fact many of the issues identified in our research relate to policy areas which are not specific to the R&d agenda,
and those that are related R&d may already be tackled through EU Framework programmes or other European commission initiatives,
although in a wider context than that of the creative content sector alone. Nonetheless, we feel that the issues identified are crucial to ensure a thriving European creative content sector in the future
However, the above finding raises the question of the appropriateness of carrying out a FTA on such a diverse sector with a specific policy area like R&d in mind.
supporting R&d for infrastructure; facilitating mobile content development; accelerating broadband penetration; developing mechanisms to monitor trends
and deriving conclusions for R&d policy turned out to be beyond the reach of the approach. This is as much due to the inherent limitations of our abilities to look into the future
In this case, particular attention was paid to the implicattion of the exercise on European research policy priorities.
however, on the need for European research) policy action in these areas, would require looking at expected market and systte failures,
The EPIS research project was funded by the European commission. The opinions of the first author do not necessarily represent those of the European commission.
Report of the Independent Expert Group on R&d and Innovation appoiinte following the Hampton Court Summit chaired by Eski Aho.
Implications for Research policy. Working Document EUR 21471. Brussels: European commission. Mateos-García, J, A Geuna, A w E Steinmueller et al. 2008.
Office for Official Publicatiion of the European communities (Scientific and Technical research series, EUR 23633 EN. Mendonça, S m Pina e Cunha, J Kaivo-oja and F Ruff 2004.
The 2009 Report on R&d in ICT in the European union. JRC Scientific and Technicca Reports 23832 EN.
An Overview of research finding and debates prepared for the European Cultural Foundation
Science and Public policy February 2010 0302-3427/10/010031-10 US$12. 00 Beech tree Publishing 2010 31 Science and Public policy, 37 (1 february 2010, pages
research program involving three related studies that examined successful foresight programs. It analyzes the key factors that appear to determine whether or not foresight,
At the time of writing, Jack E Smith was Senior Advisor Federal Foresiigh and Innovation strategy, Defence R&d Canada.
we conclude the paper by identifying a series of questions that will require further research to confiir the influence of political-foundational
Since founding the Office of Technology foresight at the National research council in 2002, he has led or been an advisor to collaborative foresight projects in several emergiin science and technology (S&t) domains such as:
better informed about risks Using foresight to evaluate and future-proof strategies and priority actions Better evidence-based policies Making the case for increased investments in R&d Note:*
or decentrallized (e g. within a specific ministry or done individually in each agency with no central suppoor or supported by some central foresight body or outside research institute or both) In your opinion, has done your country anything unique that is making foresight work in your conteex
however, we will only report on data related to the two primary research questions: firstly, what is defined as program success,
and sub-national foresight exercises, followed by scenarios, analysis of trends and drivers and research priorities. There were also interesting differences observed.
The APEC Center for Technology foresight is located a Bangkok applied research and foresight center established and supported by APEC, through active co-operation of Thailand and other APEC member economies,
In Finland, the Parliamenntar Committee on the Future is supported by a national fund for R&d (SITRA-government investtment augmented by a significant Nokia share sale in the 1990s) as well as by government S&t focused agencies such as the TEKES, VTT
His recent research interests incluude converging technologies to combat emerging infectiiou diseases and climate change. Ponpiboon Satangput graduated from the University of Cambridge in 2001
His research interests include: medical imaging, decision-making techniques, future knowledge management systems, and project management. Greg Tegart has had a long and varied career.
He was the first director of Chula Unisearch, a business-oriented commerciallizatio unit of Chulalongkorn University and the direccto of the S&t development Program at Thailand Development Research institute.
and development (R&d) needed to manage, prevent, or combat EID. To complete the objective in Phase I,
Phucharoenchanachai (2005) Biosecurity and emerging infectious diseases in Asia-pacific Science and Public policy February 2010 44 In Phase II, the objective was to determine directiion for future R&d
and the Australian Biosecurity Cooperaativ Research centre, the experts were organised into smaller groups. The groups identified key driveer of future change relevant to the study,
) The basic elements of a generic roadmap representiin market, products, technology, R&d programs, and resources, were changed into the elements listed below:
and R&d programs/activities required in delivering the desired technologies. The time frame of the roadmaps was divided into three periods:
the key challenges that could possibly hinder the developmeen progress, and R&d activities. Results and policy impact/implications Scenarios and EID life cycle model The scenario workshop listed key drivers for EID in the areas of social, technology, economics, environmeent and politics (STEEP.
Currently, RIKEN, the leading governmental research institute in Japan, is developpin laboratories in collaboration with Thailand, Vietnam, China, Indonesia
and could also enable African research organizations and researchers to study or analyze local samples collaboratively.
and make significant contributions to R&d and commercialization of devices and systeems Yet the convergence of technologies will not come in the same form as the convergence in informattio and communications technologies,
what are the necessary R&d issues, the key success factors and the barriers, then the landsccap of each technology application domain emerged.
so that decision-makers in each member economy of the APEC could invest in their R&d programs
where the context of technology applications in a multilateral R&d agenda is usually not fully explored.
Funding for R&d, considering the EID life cycle, has to be balanced, while networking and technology transfer in certain areas are a viable option.
and symposiums held under this research project. Special thanks are due to Dr Yoshhik Okamoto (RIKEN, Japan) and Dr Stephen Prowse who contribbute in the Diagnostic Technology roadmap.
The authors are also grateful to Mr Jack Smith (Defence R&d Canada) and Dr Richard Silberglitt (Rand Corporation) who have given ideas
Drawing on our own experiences in the Interdisciplinary research On Mobile Applications and Services (ROMAS) project,
Finally, we summarriz our findings and identify some opportunities for further research in this field. Theoretical perspectives Interplay between technological and societal forces The relationship between technology and society has already been studied from various perspectives.
Currently, she works as a researcher at MICT (Research group for Media and Informattio and Communications technologies (ICT)( website<www. mict. be affiliated
Her research interests include: interdisciplinary research on quality of experience (Qoe) and quality of service (Qos) in mobile media environments, evaluation of user-and futureorieente innovation techniques in the ICT domain,
and advannce in Living Lab methodologies. She is preparing a Phd thesis on the measurement of Qoe in a mobile media environment.
Her research interests and publications lie in the field of quantitative survey analysis, new media and advertissing She is currently working on a Phd thesis on advertisiin in a digital media environment based on the IBBT research project ADME (website<http://projects. ibbt. be/adme>).
>Lieven De Marez obtained an MSC in communication sciennce (1999) and then an MSC in marketing (2000.
His research interests include: electromaagneti field exposure assessment, propagation for wireless communication systems, antennas and calibration. In particular, he specializes in wireless performance analyssi and Qoe.
His research interests include: interactive applicatioons personalization, recommendation systems and evaluation of Qoe and quality of service (Qos) in mobile environments.
His research group joined the IBBT in 2004. User involvement in future technology analysis Science and Public policy February 2010 53 of the diffusion theory has to do with its proinnovvatio bias and the assumed linearity of the innovaatio and adoption process.
4 5) attribute this discrepancy betwwee theory and practice mainly to the lack of empirical evidence on the benefits of userinvollvemen and user-oriented strategies compared to traditional research and development.
Six IBBT research groups collaborated on this project and i-City's User involvement in future technology analysis Science and Public policy February 2010 55 large-scale living lab was the main research location.
Although it is now part of ilab (an IBBT research platform offering three complementary infrastructuure for elaborate testing in both controlled and liviin lab settings
The main objective of ROMAS was to generate a set of cross-application research findings that can optimize the integrated development process for new digital products and services.
Methodological framework The common methodological framework covered three main research stages in the innovationdevellopmen process (Lievens and Pierson, 2006.
In the second stage (concept development and evaluatioon) a selection of mobile applications was studied by interdisciplinary research teams in a horizontal layer
-and market-oriented research conducted by the Research group for Media and ICT and Wireless and Cable Research group, both affiliated to IBBT and Ghent University.
and find it difficult to empathize with other users'lifestyyles e g. a 25-year-old reflects only on his daily Innovation-development process Prior-to-launch Post-launch R&d Opportunity identification Concept design Concept development
and technological limitations. 47‘wild ideas'were generated in these sessions, all original and very useful for subsequent stages of the research project.
as measured by the quotient of the volume of financial support to the volume of a supported firm's own research and development expenditures.
The CTI mainly supports research and development (R&d) co-operation projects from all scientific fields by funding the public partner (a univerrsit
or a public research institution) in such a cooperaation the private partner being an enterprise that agrees to contribute to this project at its own expeens by at least the amount of funds offered by the CTI (private contribution of at least 50%;
The principle of indirect R&d support of good projeccts which are proposed jointly by a private
the amount of R&d promotion divided by the R&d budget of the firm in the same period.
it was shown that the promotion effect was (with one exceptiion dependent on the magnitude of the promotion ratti (as measured by the ratio of R&d subsidies by CTI to a firm's own R&d expenditure.
and the investigation of the effect of promotion ratio as measured by the ratio of R&d subsidies by CTI to a firm's own R&d expenditure.
A further way of supporting private investment in innovation is through tax incentives for R&d expenditures (see Jaumotte and Pain, 2005 for a survey of the main fiscal policies to support innovation.
For example, programmes offeriin financial support for small or young firms are intennde to stimulate additional R&d
In a comparison of industrialized countries only Japan and Luxembourg show a comparably low percentage of government financing for R&d (OECD
) This tradition is based on a wide Spyros Arvanitis is a senior researcher at the KOF Swiss Economic Institute and a lecturer in economics at the ETH Zurich.
Before this appoinntmen he was a senior researcher at the KOF Swiss Economic Institute at the ETH Zurich.
2007), less than 10%of Swiss firms perceive a lack of public R&d promotion to be a strong,
Besides the promotion of entrepreneurship through CTI's start-up funding programme plus a mobilization initiaativ called Venturelab, most of CTI funds are direccte to financing‘bottom-up'-initiated R&d projects from all scientific fields,
The principle of indirect R&d support of good projects, which are proposed jointly by a private
In this study we apply matching methods to evaluate the impact of R&d subsidies on the innovatiio performance of subsidized firms.
and apply The principle of indirect R&d support of good projects, which are proposed jointly by a private
and is the only study that compares the impact of two different policy instrumments Six out of ten studies use R&d intensity,
R&d expenditure or R&d personnel as the target variables of the promotional measures. For one study the target variable is innovation expenditure.
Japan Government-sponsored cooperrativ R&d projects organized by Ministry of International Trade and Industry (1983 1989) 226 Selection correction:
R&d effort eqn. R&d spending:++Patents:++Busom (2000), Spain R&d subsidy programme 1988 154 Selection correction:
Two-equation system (participation eqn.:R&d effort eqn. patent eqn. R&d expenditures: R&d personnel, R&d expenditures/sales, R&d personnel/employment:+
+Wallsten (2000), USA Small Business Innovation research (SBIR) Programme (1990 1992) 81 Selection correction: Three-equation system (two different participation eqns.:
R&d spending eqn. employment eqn. R&d spending 1992: -employment 1993: no effect Arvanitis et al. 2002), Switzerland Programme of promoting use of Computer Integrated Manufacturing Technologies (CIMT)( CIM Programme, 1990 1996) 463 Selection correction:
Two-equation system (participation eqn. CIMT adoption eqn. Change in CIMT intensity (1990 1996:++for firms with less than 200 employees+for firms adopting CIMT for first time Donzé (2002),
Switzerland Programme of promoting use of CIMT (CIM Programme, 1990 1996) 463 Matched-pair analysis (several alternative methods) Change in CIMT intensity (1990 1996):+
+for firms with less than 200 employees+for firms adopting CIMT for first time Lach (2002), Israel R&d grants from Office of Chief Scientist at Ministry of Industry and Trade (1990 1995) 325 Difference
-indifference estimator R&d spending:++for small firms no effect for large firms Czarnitzki and Fier (2002), Germany Public innovation subsidies in German service sector 210 Matched-pairs analysis (nearest
neighbour matching) Innovation expenditure: innovation expenditure/sales:++Almus and Czarnitzki (2003), Germany R&d subsidies to East german firms (1994,1996, 1999) 622 Matched-pairs analysis (calliper matching) R&d intensity:+
+Pointner and Rammer (2005), Austria Programme of promoting use of CIMT (Flexcim Programme, 1991 1996) 301 (a) Selection correction:
Two-equation system (participation eqn.:CIMTADOPPTIO eqn. b) matched-pair analysis Change in CIMT intensity (1992 1998:+
+for firms with less than 200 employees+for firms with low intensity of CIMT use Görg andstrobl (2007), Ireland R&d grants from (Industrial Development Agency (IDA) Ireland and Forbairt
(1999 2002) 828 Combination of matching approach and difference-indiffeerenc estimator R&d spending; R&d spending per employee:
small domestic firms:++medium domestic firms: no effect; large domestic effects: -all size classes of foreign firms:
no effect Bérubé and Mohnen (2007), Canada R&d tax credits versus R&d tax credits+R&d grants 584 Matched-pairs analysis (nearest neighbour matching) Firms with tax credits
+R&d grants are more innovative than firms with only tax credits for 6 out of 8 innovation indicators Notes:+(
which finds a negative effect for R&d spending, meaning that subsidies were crowding out private R&d spending.
Although all the studies in Table 1 refer to the firm as the analytical entity, a closer comparison of the results of these studies is not possiibl due to large differences with respect to the variables taken into consideration in order to control for selection bias.
The CTI database contained information on 634 subsiddize R&d projects that were finished between 1 january 2000 and 31 december 2002.
one-and-ahaal years is an adequate time lag between R&d and realization of R&d outcomes for most industries and for incremental innovations.
For the firms that compleete their subsidized R&d during the second half of the reference period, particularly in the year 2002, it is questionable,
Hence, for the large majority of the projects there was enough time to have a measurable impact of R&d on their innovation performance.
in the period 2000 2002 634 R&d projects were supported by the CTI. Table 2 shows the scientific fields in which these projects were located
are quite underrepreesente among the subsidized firms (4%),reflecctin the strong tendency of this branch of aboveaveerag investment in R&d.
particulaarl through co-financed research projects in cooperratio with universities, would show on average a significantly higher innovation performance,
Y=Y1i-Y0i (1) In a first step we estimated by a probit model the propensity scores P (X i e. we estimated the probabiilit of a firm having a research project subsidized by the CTI as a function of a vector X of firm characterristic As independent variables
a variable characterizing a firm's R&d activities (continnuou vs. occasional), the degree of exposure to internaationa competition (export activities yes/no),
In a sixth and last step we calculated a subsidy quotient for every subsidized firm by dividing the amount of the granted subsidy by the total R&d expendiiture in the period 2000 2002.
and the existence of continuous R&d activiitie in the propensities equation, these performannc differences have to be traced with good reason to the main difference between the two groups of firms,
The larger the amount of the subsidy relative to a firm's own R&d investment, the stronger is the impulse for the innovation performannc of a firm.
'A further finding was that the magnitude of the impact correlated positively with the relative size of financial support as measured by the quotient of the volume of financial support to the volume of a supporrte firm's own R&d expenditures.
if an amount of about CHF60 million in 2004 (meanwhile CHF100 150 million of additional R&d support per annum) could have a discernible impact on an economy that invested about CHF19 billion in R&d in 2004.
R&d tax incentiive would do better, but such a discussion would be beyond the scope of this empirical paper.
Propensity of having a research project subsidized by CTI as function of various firm characteristics (probit estimation;
research project subsidized by CTI in period 2000 2002, yes/no) Firm characteristics Test level 5%Firm characteristics Test level 5%Firm size:
0. 14) Continuous R&d activities 0. 40 Eastern Switzerland (0. 10) Central Switzerland Export activities 0. 43 Ticino (0. 11) Language
Lepori (2006) gives a longteer analysis of public research policy primarily with respect to universities and public research organizations.
and R&d expenditures strictly referring to the period 2000 2002 that unfortunately cannot be quantified and corrected.
The effects of public R&d subsiddie on firms'innovation activities: the case of Eastern Germaany Journal of Business and Economic Statistics, 21 (2), 226 236.
Are firms that received R&d subsiddie more innovative? UNU-MERIT Working Paper No. 2007-015.
Research policy, 29 (4/5), 627 655. Busom, I 2000. An evaluation of the effects of R&d subsidies.
Economics of Innovation and New technology, 9 (2), 111 148. Caliendo, M and R Huber 2005.
Is public R&d a complement for private R&d? Research policy, 29 (4/5), 497 529. Donzé, L 2002.
Matched-pair analysis based on business survey data to evaluate the policy of supporting the adoption of advannce manufacturing technologies by Swiss firms, KOF Working Paper No. 65, July 2002.
Mapping the frontiers of evaluation of public-sector R&d programmes. Science and Public policy, 34 (10), 681 690.
Do public subsidies complement businees R&d? A meta-analysis of the econometric evidence. Kykloos 57 (1), 87 102.
Research policy, 29 (4/5), 657 678. Görg, H and E Strobl 2007. The effect of R&d subsidies on privaat R&d.
Economica, 74 (2), 215 234. Griessen, T and D Braun 2008. The political coordination of knowledge and innovation policies in Switzerland.
How effective are fiscal incentiive for R&d? A review of the evidence. Research policy, 29 (4/5), 449 469.
Heckman, J, H Ichimura, J Smith, J. and P Todd 1998. Characterizzin selection bias using experimental data.
Building programme evaluation into the design of public research-support programmes. Oxford Review of Econoomi Policy, 18 (1), 22 34.
Do subsidies to commerrcia R&d reduce market failures? Microeconometric evaluation studies. Research policy, 29 (4/5), 471 495.
Lach, S 2002. Do R&d subsidies stimulate or displace private R&d? Journal of International Business Studies, 50 (4), 369 390.
Lepori B 2006. Public research funding and research policy: a long-term analysis for The swiss case. Science and Public Policcy 33 (3), 205 216.
Nelson, R R 1959. The simple economics of basic scientific reseaarch Journal of Political economy, 67 (3), 297 306.
OECD 2006a. Government R&d funding and Company Behavioour Measuring Behavioural Additionality. OECD: Paris. OECD 2006b. OECD Reviews of Innovation policy:
Switzerland. Paris: OECD. OECD 2007. Science, Technology and Industry Board Innovatiio and Performance in the Global economy.
Benchmarking industry science relations: the role of framework conditions. Science and Public policy, 28 (4), 247 258.
Evaluation of government-sponsored R&d consortia in Japan. In Policy Evaluation in Innovation and Technology Towards Best Practices, pp 225 253.
The effects of government industry R&d programmes on private R&d: The case of the Small Business Innovation research Programme.
*Ron Johnston2 and Fabiana Scapolo3 1mark Boden, European commission Joint research Centre, Institute for Prospective Technological Studies, Seville, Spain 2professor Ron Johnston, Australian Centre for Innovation
, University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia 3fabiana Scapolo, European commission Joint research Centre, Science Advice to Policy Unit, Brussels, Belgium*Corresponding author.
Shaping and Driving Structural and Systematic Transformations organised by the Institute of Prospective Technological Studies of the European commission's Joint research Centre (JRC-IPTS) was held in May 2011.
Cuhls, Bunkowski and Behlau provide a case study of the Fraunhofer Institutes'action-oriented foresight process of using global challenges to identify and implemeen research themes for future markets.
Traditionally, the Fraunhofer R&d portfolio has been technologydriiven A corporate Future topics process has been establisshe in order to foster a needs-oriented approach.
and develop interdisciplinary research projects to tackle these challenges. Collaboration and interdisciplinary problemsollvin approaches are fostered as project consortia have to consist of at least four institutes, preferably with diverging technological competences.
Table 1. Theme Objectives Focus Initial phase Main phase Commitment phase Energy Establishment of R&d priority agenda,
trends in private sector investments worldwiide state-of-the-art in nanoscience and nanotechnollog in Brazil (main research groups, lab infrastruccture funding, training activities
and nanotechnologies in selected countries Challenges in communicating the outcomes of foresight studies. 251 supporting basic and applied research;
representatives from universities and research institutions tend to impose barriers to accepptin strategic foresight activities. Time is usually not a problem
European commission, Joint research Centre, Institute for Prospective Technological Studies. 2011)‘ The FOR-LEARN Online foresight Guide, '<http://forlearn. jrc. ec. europa. eu/guide/0 home/index. htm>accessed 12 december 2011.
Research priority setting in China Mats Benner1, Li Liu2, *and Sylvia Schwaag Serger1 1lund University research Policy Institute, P o box 117, SE-221 00 Lund, Sweden, 2institute of Science, Technology and Society, School of Humanities
and Social sciences, Tsinghua University, 100084 Beijing, China*Corresponding author. Email: liuli66@tsinghua. edu. cn Few countries have increased their expenditure on r&d as rapidly as has China in recent years.
and priorities set in Chinese research policy. This paper analyzes priority-setting in China's recent research policy.
We find that China's research policy is driven by a variety of different, and sometimes conflicting, objectives, leading to a multitude of often overlapping initiatives.
Secondly, missionaan excellence-driven research dominates over institution-and capacity-building and diffusion objectives. Thirdly, the process of setting research priorities is characterized by a combination of central goal articulation top-down decision-making and decentralization
deliberation and stakeholder consultation bottom-up mechanisms. Aside from contributing to the understanding of China's research and innovation policy and system, this paper provides insights into policy change in China more generally and also into the processes
and interests shaping the priorities in China's R&d programs and policies. The choice of China may be motivated by its sheer importtanc in the world scientific system,
In this sense, the outline of a Chinese research policy model is therefore indicative of a more general policy change in China.
'and‘expert opinions'to justify allocating research funding on grounds other than scientific excellence. As a result, they argue,
They claim that the current research system‘wastes resourrces corrupts the spirit and stymies innovation'(Shi and Rao 2010.
Such criticisms highlight a fundamental debate in Chinese science policy-making as to how research funding should be allocated
and how research priorities should be set. That is, whether the massive spikes in public resources should be transmitted to universities and research councils,
or whether they should be distributed through large-scale national programs, and which of these models may be suited best to fulfill the goal of making China a global scientific superpoowe (see also Hao 2008).
and public accountabillity and where public academic and government research institutions are expected to draw upon private resources (OECD 2003).
In most‘mature'research systems in Western societies, several models for priority-setting exist side by side: floor funding to universities,
support streams for basic research via research councils, mission-oriented agencies, and strateegi funds of various types constitute different policy layers, sometimes,
but not always, under the coordinating umbrella of public research planning (Ruivo 1994). Today's mechanism for priority-setting in these countries is therefore a hybrid, sometimes drawing upon scientific expertise not only in low-level decision-making but also in the framing of societal challenges underlying science policy priorities (Pielke 2007),
1. 2 Analytical assumptions On the basis of this discussion, we argue that research priority-setting may take the following (not mutually exclussive directions:
However, Emerging s&t systems, such as China's, combine rapid advances in S&t resources with significant Research priority setting in China. 259 systemic immaturities regarding for example funding allocattio mechanisms,
How are research priorities set in China?.What are its defining characteristics and practices: for which purposes is funding allocated,
the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), the public research institutes affiliated to the ministries, the public research institutes affiliated to the provincial governments, the universities and the national defense research institutes.
These actors operated on the basis of a clear division of labor with little interaction between them.
The Ministry of S&t (MOST) plays a key role both through its responsibility for formulating S&t policy for example in the Medium and Long-term Plan and in the five-year plans for S&t development and as a key dispenser of research funds (Springut et al. 2011.
MOST has a number of research institutes at its disposal, such as the Chinese Academy of S&t for Development (CASTED) but also the Institute for Policy Management at the CAS and academics at selected universities, such as Tsinghua.
The Development Research center under the State Council (DRC), a think tank, also contributes to setting overall policy directions through its analyses.
in funding research and in establishing research institutions (for an overview of key institutions and actors see also Kroll et al.
)) Priority-setting in Chinese research policies and programs operates on different levels. The first level concerns ideology and overarching national strategy.
Priorities expreesse in the MLP include‘strategic priorities'(zhanlue Research priority setting in China. 261 zhongdian),
'and‘basic research'(Cao et al. 2006; Schwaag Serger and Breidne 2007. So-called mega-engineering and mega-science projects are aimed at‘leapfrogging'in key areas,
In addition to the plans, research policy is structured and implemented by national S&t programs. China has launched various national S&t programs (jihua.
1 The most salient programs in recent history are the National Key technologies R&d Program established in 1984,
the State High-tech R&d Program (also known as the 863 Program), initiated in 1986 and the State Basic R&d Program (also known as the 973 Program), established in 1997.
The 863 Program serves the goal of‘leading to the future'by supporting the development of frontier technologies.
but focuses on strengthening basic research that addresses national strategic goals or needs. 2 In addition, there are programs
on creating or supporting research institutes and labs, on increasing international cooperation etc. see Table 1). The medium-and long-term plans
National Key technologies R&d Program, the 863 Program and the 973 Program; and two group programs:
Construction of S&t Infrastructures and Construction of the S&t Industrialization Environment) 3 to‘basic+mega',reflecting the greater emphasis placed on basic research and infrastructure,
but also on the allocation of resources into mission-driven activities (see Table 2). 4 Table 1. China's R&d programs Program Starting year Objective 6th Five-year
Plan National Key technologies R&d Program 1984 Foster key technologies to upgrade traditional industries and create new ones State Key Laboratory Program 1984 Support selected laboratories in universities,
public research institutes and firms 7th Five-year Plan Creation of NSFC, 1986 National High-technology R&d Program (863 Program) 1986 Foster China's overall innovation capacity in high-tech sectors and enhance its international competitiveness Spark Program 1986
Support technology transfer to rural areas and promote development of agriculture based on S&t achievements State Key and New Product Program 1988 Support new high-tech products for key industries 9th Five-year Plan National Program
on Key Basic research Priorities (973 Program) 1997 Support basic research Innovation Fund for Technology-based SMES 1999 Support innovative activity by high-tech SMES Special
Technology development Project for Research institutes 1999 Support central government-related technology development research institutes Action Plan for Thriving Trade by Science and Technology 2000 Facilitate exports of high-tech products
and equipment to firms Soft Science Research program Provide reliable scientific advice to national and local policy-makers Source:
Table 2. Structure of national S&t programs Research priority setting in China. 263 By classifying national S&t programs into these categories,
The‘National S&t Infrastructure+Programs'include the National S&t Infrastructure Program, the S&t Basic Work Program, the Special Technology development Project for Research institutions and the NSFC Fund for Less Developed Regions.
NSFC 1598 1968 2049 2250 2701 3620 4331 5358 National Basic research Program (973 Program) 589 686 800 897 983 1354
1648 1900 National High-tech R&d Program (863 Program)* 2974 3768 4025 3795 4440 5592 Key technology R&d Program 1053 1338 1345
200 103 178 150 Special Technology development Project for Research institutions 158 214 193 183 186 200 250 250 Innovation Fund for Small Technology
there has been a trend towards increasing diversification of research priorities by including diffusion-but also excellenceorieente measures.
In recent years, we have seen an increasing orientation by the NSFC towards funding economic and socially relevant research
Strong research excellence criteria can also be found in the basic research part of the MLP, and in the megasciienc projects which were launched as a new national S&t program after the MLP.
The basic research policy in the MLP is expressed in four categories, and four priority areas, thus representing an ambition to square‘national needs'with‘science dynamics'.
Special Science Research program 375 353 396 Others 9 15 Source: All data are from National Bureau of Statistics,
Research priority setting in China. 265 the ideal of planning also shapes and influences programs for excellence.
such as a tax rebate for firms'R&d expenditures, as well as the identification of public procurement to promote enterpriises innovation capability.
Other programs with institution-and capacity-building features are the S&t Basic Program and the Special Technology development Project for Research institutions.
The Knowledge Innovation Program (KIP) launched in 1998 by the CAS is expected to result in a select group of research institutes
transferring research results to industry, providing S&t policy advice, and linking China into the international S&t community.
Process characteristics We now identify some key elements of processes characterizing research priority-setting and program design in China.
Deng xiaoping personally approved the drafting of a National High-tech R&d Program, the 863 Program. From April through September of 1986, the State Council mobilized hundreds of experts to draft an Outline for Development Of high Technology
The creation of the 973 Program, intended to strengthen basic research, is considered widely to have been the response by then-Premier Li peng to concerns voiced by scientists at the Political Consultation Conference (zhengxie) in March 1997 that basic research was being neglected in S&t funding.
The Political Consultation Conference is a political body in the Chinese political system. Its members are well-known scientists
In April 2004, the interim strategic research reports were sent to CAS, CAE, and the Chinese Academy of Social sciences for consultation.
encouraging citizens and organizations to make suggestiion and comments. 9 However, neither the drafting of the strategic research reports nor the drafting of the medium-and long-term plan,
Although the drafting of the medium-and long-term plan included structures for stakeholder involvement and transparency, overall, priority-setting in China's research policy tends to be characterized by a top-down selection of both thematic areas and fundamental development strategies.
Furthermore, the increasing research investments are expected to provide the foundattio for future economic growth, to enable the restructuring of industry from low-tech to high-tech,
which reflects a much broader constituenncy often at the behest of central government support of basic research (Mega-science Projects,
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