China, science policy, research, innovation. 1. Introduction and problem definition In recent years, there has been a rapidly growing interest in the development of science, technology and innovation (STI) in the People's republic of china.
During the‘pre-reform period',the development of the S&t forces was interrupted frequently by political movements, especially during the Cultural Revolution (1966 76.
After the end of the Cultural Revolution, the direction of China's development policy, and with it its S&t policy, changed radically (Gu and Lundvall 2006;
Throughout the era, Chinese leaders have pointed to science as a key to economic progress and competitiveness, most recently through the concept of‘scientific development'and the launching of the indigennou innovation strategy (e g.
such as the Chinese Academy of S&t for Development (CASTED) but also the Institute for Policy Management at the CAS and academics at selected universities, such as Tsinghua.
The Development Research center under the State Council (DRC), a think tank, also contributes to setting overall policy directions through its analyses.
The National Development Reform Commission (NDRC) and the Ministry of Finance influennc S&t policy-making through their responsibilities for overall economic policy and the budget, respectively.
Finally, provincial governments and S&t offices play an increasingly important role in setting priorities for industrria development
or guihua) to drive the development of S&t, as well as economic and societal development. The latest MLP was presented in February 2006
and lasts until 2020. It proposed guidelines which are expressed in 16 Chinese characters: indigenous innovation (zizhu chuangxin), leapfrogging in key areas (zhongdian kuayue),
supporting economic and social development (zhicheng fazhan), leading the future (yinling weilai). Priorities expreesse in the MLP include‘strategic priorities'(zhanlue Research priority setting in China. 261 zhongdian),
while key technology programs play the role of supporting economic development, oriented to priority fields and themes identified in the MLP.
The 863 Program serves the goal of‘leading to the future'by supporting the development of frontier technologies.
which focus on strengthening agricultural and rural development research, on promoting the developmeen of high-tech small and medium-sized enterprises (SMES),
and promote development of agriculture based on S&t achievements State Key and New Product Program 1988 Support new high-tech products for key industries 9th Five-year Plan National Program
with high value-added and foster international competitiveness 10th Five-Year Plan Agriculture S&t Transfer Fund 2001 Foster development of S&t achievements in agriculture
its major goal is to address pressing S&t issues for national economic and social development. 5 Finally,
The objectives are to produce groundbreaking research that addresses importaan scientific issues concerning national economic and social development.
aiming at promoting the development of high-tech industry and the use of S&t in rural economic development, respectively.
again reinforcing the focus on missions rather than institutional development (Suttmeier et al. 2006). Overall, institution-and capacity-building have received much less attention and focus than mission or excellence as priorities
and Lundvall (2006) who argue that the investments in S&t have not been supported sufficiently by institutional development.
In particular, they point to the need to strengthen‘learning-based economic development'and‘interactive learning'.'4. Priority setting:
. and Fangyun Chen) to national leaders, calling for the acceleration of China's high-tech development. They stressed the need to meet the challenges of the global technology revolution and competition and pointed to the US Strategic Defense Initiatives as well as Europe's EUREKA Program.
From April through September of 1986, the State Council mobilized hundreds of experts to draft an Outline for Development Of high Technology
The planning process was surrounded by relatively public and heated debates concerning the fundamental choice of development strategy to be pursued in the plan (see also Gu and Lundvall 2006.
Although the drafting of the medium-and long-term plan included structures for stakeholder involvement and transparency, overall, priority-setting in China's research policy tends to be characterized by a top-down selection of both thematic areas and fundamental development strategies.
973 Projects) with programs for industrial development (Mega-engineering Projects) and sectoral technology programs on a more modest scale (Key technologies Programs, 863 Projects).
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play an essential role in shaping and fosteriin the development of an innovation system, in this paper we will pay special attention to the role of national institutions in the development of new innovation systems.
Science and Public policy 39 (2012) pp. 271 281 doi: 10.1093/scipol/scs008 Advance Access published on 11 march 2012 The Author 2012.
Indeed, the pharmaceutical and the agricultural sectors not only possessed contrasting opportunities for the development of biotechnology,
as well as their analysis of the role of national institutions in the development of an innovaatio system.
A national innovation system focuses on the national development of technology and industries. The national frontiers draw the boundary of an innovation system.
The OECD (1999) also claims that RTDI policies should match the development of the national system.
The evolution of biotechnology and the two sectors before 2000 in fact deeply influences the development after 2000.
we select Taiwan as our empirical case and focus on the development in the period 1945 2000.
In fact, during the colonizzatio by Japan, for political reasons, the development of Chinese herbal medicines was constrained strictly.
At the time, strict clinical trials were applied gradually for the development of new herbaceous5 medicines.
Since the universities were supposed not to directly interact with firms, the Development Centre of Biotechnology (DCB),
The Taiwanese government did not strategically promote a‘set of consistent policies'to foster the development of pharmaceutical biotechnologgy Instead,
Furthermore, according to the Eight Key Industries policy, the development of biotechnology was almost equal to the development of the pharmaceutical sector
The R&d policies thus turned to encouraging the development of new herbaceous medicines (NSC 2010. To sum up:
before the late 1990s, the government did not have specific policies to encourage the development of modern pharmaceutical biotechnology.
Only in the late 1990s did the government start to support the development of modern pharmaceutical biotechnnolog through supporting the innovation of new herbaceous medicines. 3. 2 Evolution of the Taiwanese agricultural biotechnology innovation system 3. 2
and successfully grown in the trial fields were milestones in the development of genetically modified organisms (GMOS).
The Taiwanese government supported the development of agriculttura biotechnology through its agricultural policies. The purpose of these policies changed dramatically in the 1980s.
The majority of foreign exchanges were used to support the development of manufacturing industries, particularly the information and communication technologies (ICT.
agricultural biotechnology was recognized not as a part of the development of biotechnologgy Indeed, since the 1980s, compared with the prosperoou ICT industries,
In sum, besides its agricultural policies, the Taiwanese government did not have particular policies to support the development of agricultural biotechnology.
and provide contrasting opportunities for the development of the knowledge. In the Taiwanese pharmaceutical biotechnoloog system the main knowledge base of both local SMES and MNCS was chemical engineering.
and did not produce any opportunities for the development of traditional biotechnollogy Modern biotechnology was introduced only to the system after the 1980s
The system provided the chance for the development of both traditional and modern biotechnology. The traditiiona biotechnology of hybridization had already been used before 1945
the first biotechnoloog policy, targeted the development of the pharmaceutical sector, rather than biotechnology. Whilst the public organizations such as the DCB transferred technologies to pharmaceutical companies,
In summary, the development of the NSTIS is shaped deeply by national institutions such as national RTDI policies.
the NSTIS, the RTDI policies which can appropriately foster the development of an innovation system, can be reanalyzed.
Thus, appropriate RTDI policies which foster the development of NSTISS should cluster the network of actors, support the underlying logic of knowledge accumulaatio and exploitation in a particular technological field,
In the case of biotechnollogy a government should have different sets of policies for the development of pharmaceutical biotechnology and agricultural biotechnology.
or copied from another NSTIS will find it very difficult to appropriattel support the development of a specific NSTIS.
‘how'could a government make appropriate RTDI policies to foster the development of NSTISS? The question should be analyzed further in future research.
2. The medical device sector also adopts biotechnology through the development of bio-chips whose knowleedg base is across electronic engineering and biotechnollog (Dr. Chip 2010).
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as should the dynamics of research and innovation processes and the scope and opportunities for steering their reorientation along more desirable pathways of development.
and that lessen the conditions that allow adverse developments to occur. Certain traditions in the FTA family of approaches, particuularl technology assessment, have taken the reorientatiio of technological trajectories and innovation activities as an explicit goal.
and the working of institutioons and their dynamic functions of experimentation and learning, knowledge development, knowledge diffusion,
and innovation collaborration the degree to which recent developments cover the identified needs in the reorientation and governing of innovation systems and STI policies,
and towards an operational agenda that appreciates both the dynamics of innovation processes and the scope and opportunities for their steering or reorientation along more desirable paths of development.
Nurture knowledge development: this is considered to be the most basic function of innovation systems without which nothing else would happen.
The sources and locations of knowledge development are wide-ranging, and include R&d activities in the public and private sectors,
an important function of innovation systems concerns the development and mobilisation of human resources, financial capital and complementary assets (e g. infrastructures.
The mobilisation of resources has important consequences for knowledge development activities. 4. Orienting innovation systems towards grand challenges The special nature of the requirements of grand challenges to find effective solutions brings to the fore concepts such as transformative
and the development of new capabilities to detect and process signals of future change. In this way
The informing role of FTA most closely relates to the innovation system functions of facilitating experimentatiio and learning, knowledge development,
FTA PROCESSES place a special emphasis on novelty, creativity and multi-disciplinarity in knowledge development, qualities that are needed
research and innovation programmes Knowledge development Transformative shifts implied by solutions to grand challenges will need new knowledge as well as a new type of knowledge production.
and mobilise resources The development and mobilisation of new resources translates into new skills (or reorientation of existing ones) and the reallocation of financial resources.
and the design and development of appropriate forms of resilience Mobilising and structuring actor networks Improve implementation by enabling transparency,
and examining developments and possible implications. By promoting the inclusion of all relevant stakeholders they can facilitate cross-sectoral collaboration between the public and private sectors as well as between various industries, a multilevel governance approach,
and priorities through knowledge development based on expert knowledge and by mobilising the resources availabbl in the actors already involved in the projects.
Enhancement of the strategic capabilities of individuals and organisatiion through the development of a foresight culture can be an important side effect of any FTA ACTIVITY provided appropriate provisions are made in the design of the new instruments.
and create solutions to situations or challenges at hand Knowledge development FTA, as a source of‘strategic intelligence'for policy and other actors, is itself a knowledge-creating activity.
for example, provide insights into longer-term developments, scope and opportunities for shaping futures, and mutual positioning of other innovation system actors vis-a vis the future.
through articulation of market-shaping expectations and visions and conditions for coordination of market actors that these provide Structuring role of FTA allows consideration of future market applicability of different alternatives alongside with research excellence needed to foster their development Capacity
Current EU programmes and initiatives mainly exploit the informing role of FTA in knowledge development and in providing guidance for direction or prioritisation of research areas and themes.
It provides a framework to network and mutually open national or regional research programmes, leading to concrete cooperation such as the development and implementation of joint programmes or activities.
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institutionalisation. 1. Introduction Increasingly dynamic processes of change and sudden disrupptiv developments are becoming the norm rather than the exception.
Similarly, in many respects, breakthrough technologies due to developments in information and communiccatio technologies and nano-and biotechnologies have disruptive impacts on economies, markets and innovative consumer goods and services.
These developments heighten the uncertainty in the face of likely transformation processes ahead which call for strategic orientations (cf.
and prepare for disruptive developments. The dynamic internatiiona environment requires policy-makers to be prepared better for the‘unexpected
What kinds of developments can we observe in terms of how these models are used in practice?.What do these findings suggest with regard to the future direction to take for organising FTA ACTIVITIES?
Driven by the need to explore certain technological, economic or societal developments of major concern to decision-makers,
but also possible disruptive events or developments that may radicalll influence the future. This trend reflects growing attentiio to uncertainties and complexities,
By looking into the latest developments in how FTA systems understood as combination of governance modes
we want to explore the direction in which FTA is likely to evolve in the future. 3. 1 Emerging developments in FTA systems This section looks at how emerging developments in FTA deal with challenges of transformative change,
and are thus a good indicator of ongoing developments in FTA. The analysis of the selected papers on FTA attests to the richness of approaches in relation to different types of transformatiions governance modes
'Stimulating national and regional economic development through innovation. Guiding and/or complementiin competition and integratiio oriented governance.
For instance, integration in view of central planning vs. competition in view of market forces defining urban development Individual regional foresight project‘Embedding foresight in transnatiiona research programming'Deals with deliberate approach to both rapid
thus suggesting co-development of institutional and networked organissatio of FTA systems Ko nno la et al.
Overall, networks for the collaborative development of crosscutting challenges Coping with a fast-changing world. 161 may help reframe the‘bigger picture
it is a rather new development in the public sector, for instance in the field of RTI policy,
but this development is currently being reconsidered in several firms (Daheim and Uerz 2008. This has led to a renewed interest in the institutionaalisatio of forward-looking intelligence,
The fast pace of technological change and the complexity of its societal repercussions make the interpretation of contextual developments very difficult.
and constraints imposed by novel developments such as the current economic and financial crisis. However, the coordination mode of governance that seems to be on rise in Europe see for instance the debates on European Innovation Partnerships
whether or not these types of developments will be sufficient to cope with the challenges of transformative and disruptive changes.
and adapt these in view of the latest world developments. In this context, it is imperative that foresight initiatives to address global challenges are carried out at regular intervals to build a common understanding of current situatiion
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but need to gain a good appreciation of possible future developments, particularly given the uncertainties around the dynamics and impacts of grand challenges.
The purpose of its current foresight exercise is to explore the potential development of international science over the next two decades in a changing economic, social, political and environmental context.
To this end, the conduct of the foresight exercise has been synchronized closely with the development of the ICSU strategic plan 2012 7 (ICSU 2011a)
and the UN Development Programme (UNDP) as cosponsors, subsequently joined by the International Fund for Agricultural Development.
The International Geophysical Year (IGY) in 1957 8 was the first large-scale international field study.
Regional initiatives, particularly the development of a transnational European research area, are having a signifiican effect on international science cooperation (European commission 2008.
1 The New Partnership for African Development (NEPAD) may provide the impetus for a similar cooperative effort in that region.
The exercise set out to map the long-term uncertainties of developments around international science cooperation with a view to building greater agility vis-a vis disruptive change.
together with an exploration of possible future developments that might offer opportunities or threats to ICSU.
and presented as a‘general context'to developments over the coming 20 years. In addition, a further 13 key drivers, for which trends are much more uncertain,
The future preferences of states on socioeconomic development models will impact on international science. The present range of options extends from market-based economies to stronger developmental state intervention to communism,
which may in turn lead to the development of a strongly multipolar world of regional blocs.
and are meant to encourage the development of strategies that are appropriate to a variety of circumstances,
'Phase 3 saw the exercise shift its focus from preparing exploratory scenarios to the development of Engaged National Global Detached Science for sale in a global market place Globalism driven largely by multinationals An international division
Furthermore, as part of its Initiative On earth System Sustainability, 2012 22, ICSU worked with funding agencies to encourage the development of internatioona courses targeted at developing the ability of young researchers to conduct interdisciplinary research.
and formed the basis for the development of many new international science networks, both North South and South South.
Because of these developments, in the 2000s it has become more common to talk about systemicity in the context of science, technology and innovation (STI) policies.
and the analysis of the wider societal setting and to enable systematic analysis of future-oriented ideas that could spring either from technological development, policy practices or more generic societal development.
This visual emphasis enables the use of roadmaps as crystallized strategy maps that open up a simultaneous perspective on both the macro-level currents and on the corresponding micro-level developments (Blackwell et al. 2008.
The aim of TM is to connect micro-scale technical niches into macrosccal landscape developments through the middle-scale of a socio-technical regime (Geels 2004:
and development activities realized by multiple actors. A joint vision can direct these interlinked activities towards joint goals
and link them with emerging technological and industrial development. Systemic change can be facilitated through different policies, e g. regulation and taxes,
The key idea of a transformation roadmap is to connect the development of technologies and innovations to a wider societal sphere.
The aim is to endorse the formation of policy conclusions based on an in depth understanding of the technological developments and their socioeconomic frameworks.
The third level is sectoral development, with an emphasis particularly on emerging solutions, and on anticipated convergence and disruptions.
with a primary focus on technologies that enable the sectoral development. Fig. 2 presents the subset of a systemic transformation roadmap, the technology roadmap.
In the first level, technology-based solutions, specific developments of technological solutions are depicted on a level that is assessed as necessary.
Commonly, one focuses on technologies that endorse the development of the solutions, but in some cases it is also possible to map the convergence of enabling technologies.
organizations and institutions that are perceived as important in the development of the technology. There are basically three ways to build roadmaps.
instruments and regulatory changes Sectoral development: new solutions, convergence, disruptions Key enablers: opportunities based on emerging technologies Technology roadmap 2 Technology roadmap n Figure 1. Generic structure of systemic transformation roadmap. 182.
The development of the IPRM method, still an ongoing process, is an outcome of several projects realized at VTT Technical research Centre of Finland.
segments, geography Capabilities, resources, actors (CRA) CRA developments 2 CRA developments 3 CRA developments 4 Figure 2. Generic structure of technology roadmap.
instruments and regulatory changes Sectoral development: new solutions, convergence, disruptions Enabling technologies Energy-efficiency requirements, energy price and availability;
but should be offset by demandorieente innovation policy measures such as smart regulatiio and public procurement. 4. 2. 3 Sectoral development.
In this roadmap, sectoral development is divided into the themes of market and solutiions The present markets are fragmented and emphasiiz suboptimization by price.
development of ICTS will focus on product model technologies linking design, building, operation and real-time EMS.
and to offer an outlook of the potential developments of green ICT based on VTT's technological competence.
instruments and regulatory changes Sectoral development: solutions, convergence, disruptions Key enablers Technology roadmap 2: Extending natural resources Technology roadmap 3:
Furthermore, basic demand-side policies, like public procureement can be utilized in the context of green ICT as well as economic incentives. 5. 3. 3 Sectoral development.
'The further development of transnational research and innovation collaboration is likely to benefit from conceptuua demarcation of different dimensions of the challenges.
Comprehensive strategic cross-policy/sector partnerships 8 Figure 1. Development phases of international S&t co-operation (Gnamus 2010.
Historically, research policies have emerged through development paths that reflect the societal contexts of their path-dependent technoinstittutiona co-evolution.
In last two decades systemic challenges in research and innovation have lead to the development of systemic Embedding foresight in transnational research programming. 195 instruments for better preparedness, co-ordination and integrratio of research and innovation systems
Development and Deployment co-operation (including currency issues) Lack of networks/no European structures to coordinate co-operation in programme area Geographic distance Policy to achieve national priorities through internal capacity
scenarrio for long-term urban developments, an improved understanding of future trends and research needs, first concepts and recommendations for policy measures, a strengthening of the European research and innovation communities,
from the design of the Urban Europe process and the further development of the SRF to the participation in research projects and in implementatiio measures.
and an Urban Europe exchange platform. 32 Despite the fact that these forums are designed not expliccitl for the anticipation of long-term future developments,
and access to research programmes and results across all countries Mapping and analysis of existing foresight exercises for urban regions and for other non-region specific topics relevant for urban development allows gaps
to be identified where additional foresight exercises may be needed Development of an SRF that sets out likely directiion of technological
therefore Development of scenarios, desirable futures and pathways towards these futures for specific Urban Europe topics Use of a pilot call to improved understanding of future trends
and research needs beyond initial analysis Development of scenarios for long-term urban developments Establishment of an UEF,
Temporal co-ordination can be enhanced by foresight through the joint development of a vision for the future and of a roadmap towards it,
Temporal co-ordination also relates to regularly checking those scenariios visions and roadmaps against new developments
it may also be useful to explore the development of common expert pools for different instruments for transnational research programming..
and the development of joint knowledge repositories (see for instance the European foresight Platform). 34 Furthermoore foresight plays particularly a relevant role in learning on future developments in the areas where there is little
systematic exchange of information and good practices on existing programmes and activities. identification and analysis of common strategic issues. planning and development of joint activities between national and regional programmes. implementation
'9. This platform aims at supporting the process for develoopin national/regional innovation strategies for smart specialisation that support the development of well-performing national or regional research and innovaatio systems,
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It may even be used as a highly evidence-based source to provide plausible discontinuities in the development of scenarios.
searches for information about new developments. This can be done by using automated tools such as news alerts and feeds, Google trends as well as automated text-mining.
The raw material may be different observations about topics such as scientiifi and technological developments within various areas, and may be obtained from research papers, laboratory results, dissemination about new theories, experiments, prototypes etc.
new developments and funding aimed at minimising the negative health effects of human ageing or understanding, utilising
‘warnings (external or internal), events and developments that are still too incomplete to permit an accurate estimation of their impact
Information about new developments and also societal happenings can be obtained, even in real time. This can enable faster and timelier assessments and thus earlier detection of events, changes and possible weak signals.
and also a body of additional signals that are considered to be indicative of the start or development of their emergence.
and to monitor their further development. Database tools that are connected to search engines such as Google news Timeline, Google Insight, Web of Science,
For the scientists in the labs these developments cause many problems because:..the speed of communication is ahead of the sheer time needed to think
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