'This indicates that China is not moving towards a substitution of centralized reseaarc governance with a fully fledged pluralist system without strong coordinating mechanisms a`la Russia after the Soviet period (Graham and Dezhina 2008.
and public accountabillity and where public academic and government research institutions are expected to draw upon private resources (OECD 2003).
The second is related to institutiionand capacity-building and governance of the S&t system, and in particular floor funding of academic institutiions Ergas'work
and thus presuppose relatively well-developed and mature S&t institutions, basic capacities and governance mechanisms.
institution-and capacity-building and governance refer to efforts aimed at creating basic foundations for research and innovation.
the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), the public research institutes affiliated to the ministries, the public research institutes affiliated to the provincial governments, the universities and the national defense research institutes.
These actors operated on the basis of a clear division of labor with little interaction between them.
2. 2 Governance of the S&t system An important element characterizing the governance of China's S&t system throughout the phases identified before is the strong involvement of China's top leaders in S&t decision-making.
and currently chaired by Prime minister Wen Jiabao. The Ministry of S&t (MOST) plays a key role both through its responsibility for formulating S&t policy for example in the Medium and Long-term Plan and in the five-year plans for S&t development and as a key dispenser of research funds (Springut et al. 2011.
In formulating policy, MOST has a number of research institutes at its disposal, such as the Chinese Academy of S&t for Development (CASTED) but also the Institute for Policy Management at the CAS and academics at selected universities, such as Tsinghua.
The National Development Reform Commission (NDRC) and the Ministry of Finance influennc S&t policy-making through their responsibilities for overall economic policy and the budget, respectively.
Finally, provincial governments and S&t offices play an increasingly important role in setting priorities for industrria development
The Chinese government's programmatic and overarching emphasis on a‘harmonious society'and, more recently,
Technology development Project for Research institutes 1999 Support central government-related technology development research institutes Action Plan for Thriving Trade by Science and Technology 2000 Facilitate exports of high-tech products
Key data for expendditur by Central Government on the main S&t programs is shown in Table 3. Fig. 2 classifies China's main S&t programs,
Table 3. Allocations for S&t by Central Government in main S&t programs (in million RMB) Item 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
further confirming that government S&t funding is concentrated strongly on mission-based research. 3. 2 Mission Traditionally,
and its financial resources come mainly from allocations by the Central Government, although the NSFC accepts donations from domestic and foreign individuals or other organizations.
'Hence, Table 4. Allocation for S&t by Central Government in S&t programs by fields: the Case 973 Program (in million RMB) Item 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Total 589 686 800 897 983
it could be argued that S&t spending by China's government spending has been focused more on generating knowledge than on utilizing it.
while government funding of education, both as a percentage of gross domestic product and compared with education funding in other countries,
However, rather than being spontaneous initiatives taking the government by surprise these appeals tend to address widely known issues or problems in China's S&t system.
In some cases they may even be encouraged by the government, letting experts point to problem areas
which the government already has identified and intends to tackle. As an example, the 863 Program was preceded by a letter written by four Chinese scientists (Daheng Wang, Ganchang Wang G.,Jiachi Yang G,
They usually take the opportunities provided by the conferences to provide policy suggestions to the government.
and thus from outside the governmment However, the appeals or demands for policy action did not take the government by surprise
and were not in conflict with the government's policy goals. 4. 2 Identifying priorities:
Thus, in the making of the latest Medium and Long-term Plan, an‘expert consulttatio group for the overall strategy for the Mediumaan Long-term Plan'consisting of around 20 senior scienttist was created in 2003 to provide input to the‘leading group'which was made up of the Prime minister
and top officials from 23 ministries and ministry-level organizatiion (Liu 2009; Schwaag Serger and Breidne 2007.
More than two thousand scientists, engineers, policy experts, corporate executives, officials from universities, ministries, and corporations participated in the strategic studies.
A senior policy researcher observed that the main actors involved in S&t policy-making were government ministries and scientists.
the government created a website for public participation and consultation, encouraging citizens and organizations to make suggestiion and comments. 9 However, neither the drafting of the strategic research reports nor the drafting of the medium-and long-term plan,
which reflects a much broader constituenncy often at the behest of central government support of basic research (Mega-science Projects,
for instance‘harmonious society'and‘indigennou innovation',indicating the contributions and frameworks of STI governance with broader policy process.
as the reforms of governance continue to stress the need for articulation of actors'interests, building new constituencies among academics, academic institutions and industry to tap into their interests,
we still find a strong emphasis on grandiose projects, less on the processes and the governance of S&t and reforms of S&t institutions.
U s. Government Technology policies, 1969 2008. Boulder, CO: Paradigm. Braun, D. 2008)‘ Organising the political coordination of knowledge and innovation policies',Science and Public policy, 35: 227 39.
issues and recent trends',Governance of Public research: Toward Better Practices, pp. 61 76. OECD: Paris..(2008) OECD‘Reviews of Innovation policy:
journals. permissions@oup. com The government's research, technology development and innovation (RTDI) policies, which are special forms of national institutions
The Taiwanese government shaped the sector through its policies on pharmaceuticals and biotechnology. On the other hand, the agricultural sector,
The Taiwanese government supported the sector through agricultural policies, which were considered not part of the biotechnology policies.
The institutional actors, such as firms and industrial laboratories, universities and government laboratories, and their networks constitute the national innovation system (Nelson and Rosenberg 1993).
especiaall government policies, do influence the performance of a nation's technological innovation system. According to the literature an innovation system is composed of actors and networks
The national government plays an essential role in establishing national institutions. To sum up, an NSTIS, as the three innovation systems, is composed of actors and networks, technology and knowledge,
and is guided strongly by a‘set of'government policies. Nevertheless, as we will show in Section 3, Taiwan adopted traditional biotechnology before 1945 and adopted modern biotechnology as early as the 1980s.
the Taiwanese government has implemented not a‘set of policies'towards biotechnology, but has adopted different sets of policies towards pharmaceuttica biotechnology and agricultural biotechnology.
such as government documents and the historical records of the institutions embedded in the innovation systems, we will discover how the technological innovattio system for biotechnology gradually emerged with the Taiwanese national innovation system,
The Taiwanese government announced its first biotechnology policy, the‘Eight Key Industries'in 1982. After 1982, Taiwan started to have a biotechnology policy.
) The government of the ROC then unified the 312 factories into one national pharmaceutical company (Taiwan Pharmaceutical company.
Moreover, since the government of the ROC moved its central governnmen from China to Taiwan in 1949,
In 1982, to fit the new‘Good Manufacturing Practice'regulations announced by the government, the manufacturing facilities of local SMES were upgraded (Zheng 2001:
) Multinational pharmaceutical giants who were attraacte by the government's policies of foreign direct investtmen (FDI)
when some Chinese herbal pharmacies followed the government of the ROC and moved their pharmacies from China to Taiwan,
Since the Taiwanese government had no regulattion to review the licensing of the new medicines,
while some Chinese universities followed the government of the ROC to Taiwan and rebuilt their campuses in the island,
In fact, the main occasion for academics to practice their knowledge was to support the government in drawing up regulations in order to control the qualities of the pharmaceutiicals For example
some scientists of Chinese herbal medicines were funded by the government to survey the herbs of Taiwan.
The Taiwanese government did not strategically promote a‘set of consistent policies'to foster the development of pharmaceutical biotechnologgy Instead,
which the government should invest more resourrces there was no other concrete policy promoted under the framework of the Eight Key Industries.
In 1950, the government launched the‘Statute for Encouraging Foreign Direct Investment'(abolished in 1990)
Only after 1998 did the government start to recognize Chinese herbal medicines as the backbone of the pharmaceutical sector.
From the perspective of the government, since the knowledge accumulation of biopharmaceuticals in Taiwan was too weak to compete with developed countries,
before the late 1990s, the government did not have specific policies to encourage the development of modern pharmaceutical biotechnology.
Only in the late 1990s did the government start to support the development of modern pharmaceutical biotechnnolog through supporting the innovation of new herbaceous medicines. 3. 2 Evolution of the Taiwanese agricultural biotechnology innovation system 3. 2
The institutions for the innovation of seeds were originally set up by the Japanese government and further developed by the government of the ROC after 1945.
The research organizations of the system of agricultuura experiments stations (ASS which included the Agriculture Research institute,
These research organizattion were funded fully by the Japanese government during the Japanese colonization and then by the governmeen of the ROC.
Indeed, during the Japanese colonizatiion in order to feed the population of Japan, the Japanese government introduced Japanese rice seeds to Taiwan.
2). After 1949, with the exception of the original Taiwanese experts, some Chinese experts who followed the government of the ROC
which had been founded by the Japanese government to control the production activities of farmers. One of its main responsibilities was to distribute the seeds from the ASS to individual farmers.
After 1945, the government of the ROC replaced the Japanese government in governing the farmers'association.
Nevertheless, because of the Taiwanese government regulations, even though the GM papayas were developed successfully, they were allowed not to be cultivated in the normal farms (Science and Technology research and Information Center, 2005:
The Taiwanese government supported the development of agriculttura biotechnology through its agricultural policies. The purpose of these policies changed dramatically in the 1980s.
While the government allocated considerable amounts of resources to support ICT, the resources allocated to the agricultural sector were limited relatively.
the government continued funding fundamental agricultural research in the universities and applied research in the ASS.
when the Taiwanese government was preparing to participate in the World trade organization and to open its domestic market for foreign agricultural products,
8 Another important agricultural policy promoted by the government was agricultural regulation. Before the 1980s, there was no policy regulating the innovation of seeds.
In sum, besides its agricultural policies, the Taiwanese government did not have particular policies to support the development of agricultural biotechnology.
the government promoted agricultural R&d and regulation policies, merely to increase the welfare of farmers
In the case of biotechnollogy a government should have different sets of policies for the development of pharmaceutical biotechnology and agricultural biotechnology.
‘how'could a government make appropriate RTDI policies to foster the development of NSTISS? The question should be analyzed further in future research.
as a defeated nation, Japan was forced to return Taiwan to the government of the ROC.
The government would fund 60%of the insurance premium, and the farmers only need to pay for 40%of the insurance premium (CLA, 2010).
Giesecke, S. 2000)‘ The contrasting roles of government in the development of biotechnology industry in the US and Germany',Research policy, 29: 205 23.
firms, demand, government policy and research'.'In: Laage-Hellman, J.,Rickne, A. and Mckelvey, M. eds.
Multilevel governance approaches that acknowledge the principle of subsidiarity while ensuring coherence between global, regional (e g.
This is followed by a discusssio (Section 4) of the systemic reorientation of innovattio systems towards grand challenges and the demands put on policy and governance.
firms (large and small, multinatiiona and domestic), universities, public research labs, government ministries and agencies, and intermeddiar bodies, such as industry associations and private consultants.
but also universities, government labs, ministries and funding agencies, among others. Weak interactions are diagnosed commonly as problems 142.
governments and societies to align and Orienting European innovation systems. 143 evolve into this new direction, identifying alternative solutiion and moving away from the current state of affairs.
Clearly, the eorientation of innovation systems places particular demands on STI policy and the governance of innovation systems.
2010) highlight the need for the creation of more transparent and accountable forms of governance that are better able to anticipate
In this regard, FTA as a tool of governance could have a promising role to play in reorienting innovattio systems towards grand challenges. 5. FTA for orienting innovation systems towards grand challenges Th paper takes FTA to refer to systematic processes
FTA PROCESSES can enable governments and other actors to become more adaptive and capable of enacting systemic change.
and improve governance, thus increasing trust between policy makers, business and the general public and consequently reducing the number of occasions
By promoting the inclusion of all relevant stakeholders they can facilitate cross-sectoral collaboration between the public and private sectors as well as between various industries, a multilevel governance approach,
and experience but also creativitty These spaces could also be created at different levels of governance (regional, national,
This role could be enabled in a step prior to setting the governance structures and bodies of the instruments to be created.
Such experimental spaces can occupy multiple positions in systems of multi-level governance, i e. FTA can be performed at different levels and in different places,
the FTA PROCESS and its products can mobilise those involved to reassign resources Structuring role of FTA enables definition of governance structures
and allow decisions to be shaped within wider settings through new inclusive and participatory governance approaches. With regards to its capacity-building role FTA can contribute to the articulation of strategic visions that can guide search and selection processes,
New approaches to governance',Futures, 43: 279 91. CEC. 2010)‘ Communication from the Commission to the European parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social, Committee and the Committee of the Regions, Europe 2020 Flagship Initiative Innovation Union',SEC (2010) 1161
Community actors, institutions and multilevel governance in regional foresight exercises',Futures, 36:46 65. Hall, B. H. and Rosenberg, N. 2010) Handbook of the Economics of Innovation.
Current practices of FTA require transformation through effective embedding of FTA in a user context of governance structures
and processes at corporate and government levels. In recent years, institutional responses have included the setting up of horizonscanning centres and similar anticipattor structures (Amanatidou et al. 2012;
the institutional context and modes of governance in which FTA is embedded. In order to focus on the organisational and institutional aspects of FTA systems,
and the types of organisational models and governance contexts that make up FTA systems. Section 3 will draw primarily on recent empirical research presented at the FTA 2011 Conference, 1
taking into account the wider institutional setting and co-evolution of different governance modes. Building on three dimensions (transformation types, governance modes,
and organisational models of FTA) a conceptual frame is developed for analysis in the empirical part of this paper. 2. 1 The fast-changing context:
which require an initial drive from governments. Science and technology are also the basis of challenges involving the collective ability to respond to opportunities in frontier research.
and modes of governance FTA systems form an active part of the institutional context and governance structures managing systemic and structural transformations.
This relationship with the governance context demarcates how FTA systems evolve and drive the anticipatory capabilities in society.
Ko nno la et al. 2009) derive four modes of governance from argumeent that build on cultural theory (Tukker and Butter Figure 1. Identified types of transformations.
Coping with a fast-changing world. 155 2007. Social organisation can be understood in terms of the extent to which an individual is bound in a unit or social group and the degree to
In our analysis these basic‘forces'are transposed to the societal (governance) level, allowing a deeper understanding of how governance exercises influennc in the system.
Two dimensions (rules and group ties) are used as axes to illustrate four approaches2 to social organisation.
Two dimensions, namely‘extent of group ties'and‘extent of influence of external rules'are used to construct a matrix that defines four modes of governance (see Fig. 2 and Table 1). Further to such archetypal modes of governance,
in practice we observe shifts in the governance structures in the course of societal transformations. For instance
transformaation may emerge through proactive coordination that may lead to changes in competition and integration modes of governance.
Alternatively, the governance system may adopt a co-existence mode until abrupt changes such as an economic crisis,
force government to take up new measures in other modes of governance for instance policy measures to incentivise research
FTA systems both affect and are affected by shifts in governance modes. The integration mode is likely to lead to the implementation of normative approaches that support common vision-building and priority setting.
There is an emerging stream of FTA ACTIVITY geared to providing future-oriented knowledge for decision-making on a more continuous Figure 2. Modes of governance (modified from Thompson et al. 1990.
as well as organisations either institutionalised Table 1. Key characteristics of modes of governance Integration mode of governance.
Institutionalised FTA supports the process of defining the vision and the route Co-ordination mode of governance.
Networked FTA Competition mode of governance. Optimising the market conditions. Competing visions and action plans to cope with transformations.
Fragmented FTA Co-existence mode of governance. Reactive wait-and-see until new opportunities. Focus on resilience, not on visions.
However, which of these three basic organisatioona models best fits the requirements is also a matter of the governance mode (co-existence, competition, cooperattio or integration)
organisational model and governance mode need to be compatible with each other. 3. Diversity of FTA systems in practice Against this backdrop,
address the challenge of transformation, FTA organisation and governance modes, with the aim of teasing out the main trends in how FTA is evolving in practice.
is a change in both governance and organisational models. A much higher degree of policy coordination seems to be needed to address societal challennge as well as a much more continuous and‘embedded'approach to FTA.
By looking into the latest developments in how FTA systems understood as combination of governance modes
The analysis identifies the types of transformations addressed, the governance modes in which FTA is embedded and the organisational Table 2. Framework for analysis of FTA systems Dimensions Transformation types Organisational models of FTA Governance modes Sub-categories.
Disruptive. Ongoing processes. Gradual by design. Rapid by design. External services (projects and programmes. Networks. Institutionalisation. Co-existence.
the FTA conferences3 repressen focal points for addressing issues of how FTA is embedded in governance processes,
The analysis of the selected papers on FTA attests to the richness of approaches in relation to different types of transformatiions governance modes
In terms of addressing the governance modes, the papers indicate particular attention to the coordination mode, reflecting the theoretical premises of prevailing foresight practice with its emphasis on systemic aspects
-and supply-side) approaches and the comprehensive analysis of possible measures in view of their combined effects on differren governance modes.
2011) have analysed types of Table 3. Changing rationales for FTA APPROACHES on FTA systems Dimensions Transformation types and consequent challenges Governance modes Organisational models of FTA Traditional
Guiding and/or complementiin competition and integratiio oriented governance. Designing research policy and strategy with broad aim of selecting priorities for research investments and cooperation of R&i actors.
Tiits and Kalvet (2011) learned from recent foresight exercises in Estonia that the Table 4. Diversity of FTA systems in practice Approaches in FTA systems Transformation types Governance modes Organisational models
Emphasis on coordination mode and its interactions with other governance modes Institutionalisation of FTA needs to be combined with network structures to attain:
2012) Focuses on gradual multilevel complex deliberate transformatiions which can be identified with a roadmapping exercise Identification of suitable policy instruments and/or strategies for various governance modes External service (projects and programmes),
2012) Addresses spatial dimension in gradual transformation, combining both reactive and deliberate approaches in scenario work that integrate spatial dimensions of urban planning Elements of different modes of governance addressed.
and gradual transformations Searches balance between coordinaatio and integration modes of governance Institutionalised forms of FTA need to be interconnected,
and in particular policy strategies Various governance modes are addressed in examination of instituutiona change for uptake of foresight results in design of systemic innovation policy Discusses how the findings of foresight project are embedded in institutional structures and policy design 160.
and the coordination mode of governance prevail in RECENT FTA despite the considerable richness of foci on different types of transformations and methodologgica choices and organisational setups for FTA.
forms and types of transformations, modes of governance and organisational models. A number of crosscutting observations can be drawn on the current evolution of FTA, on emerging requirements and possible responses to them. 3. 2. 1 Observation 1:
These carry out their work in open networked mode, sharing informatiio at international level with their counterparts in other countries and also internally within the country, with government, business, academia and the public.
They also depend on governments and international institutions working together to define common research agendas. Worldwide and regional (European) networks of the FTA units in international organisations, national and at least for some grand challenges regional (subnational) governments, business and nongovernmental organisations are providing an organisaationa solution to share policy perspectives
and develop joint policy and research agenda. The subsequent observations deal with the question of how these requirements
and challenges can be addressed by combinations of governance contexts and appropriate organisational models of FTA. 3. 2. 2 Observation 2:
In recent years, there has been a growing tendency among governments and businesses to invest less in individual large-scale foresight programmes and projects,
The executive branch of government has privileged usually access to this type of knowledge, even if the capacities to absorb it may be limited.
and maintaining the necessary‘strategic intelligence'to ensure the strategic governance of technology and society is not an easy task.
Exploring the balance between these three forms of FTA ACTIVITIES in empirical terms helps to improve our understanndin of how effectively different combinations of activities work in their respective decision-making context and governance modes.
However, the coordination mode of governance that seems to be on rise in Europe see for instance the debates on European Innovation Partnerships
and Joint Programming tends to favour such flexible arrangements for realizing FTA. 4. Conclusions This paper has explored FTA responses to a highly dynamic environment where disruptive events highlight the fragility of governance systems.
co-evolving with policy action in four archetypal modes of governance: integration, coordination, competition and co-existence.
which reflect the differren mixes of transformations, governance and organisatioona modes. The complementarity between models of FTA is apparent with service providers
The main problem is that governments and companies tend to deal with changes in a reactive rather than a proacttiv mode.
and to prepare firms and governments accordingly. Scenario-based monitoring not only applies to the problems and challenges ahead,
T.,Carrillo Hermosilla, J.,Loikkanen, T. and van der Have, R. 2009) Governance of energy system transition:
Tukker, A. and Butter, M. 2007)‘ Governance of sustainable transitions: about the 4 (0) ways to change the world',Journal of Cleaner Production, 15:94 103.
and the uncertainties involved in future global governance regimes. Foresight offers a means to explore these dimensions of science.
The creation of UNESCO meant that there was now an organisation with a specific remit to link with governments in the international science area.
and provides advice to national governments and international organisations. In addition, a number of large discipline-based professional associations have an international membership and perspective in their work.
understood by national governments and capable of addressing societal issues through interdisciplinary research. Since its creation in 1931, ICSU has played an important role in facilitating major international science initiatives.
of labour leads to intense specialisation of countries'economies Governments compete to host the R&d facilities of multinationals through large R&d investments Public science focused on basic research that multinationals are less likely to perform themselves Strong global networks
but also one characterised by exciting advances in science English declines as the lingua franca of science Triumph of globalism Reinvigorated global governance structures Active global citizenry that is science-savvy Global science
and social sciences Science supplying national needs General backlash against globalism Global governance of science at the intergoverrnmen level is fractured Regional
much existing information is already readily available from various horizon scanning activities going on around the world (e g. the UK Government's Sigma Scan) 2
and national governments were convinced of the importance investing in data infrastructure. The vision for a global open-access library for scientific data is being realised.
and effective governance, ICSU is recognised as a key player in international science and has been able to attract new funding.
Commissioned by the Victorian government, the purpose of the Victoria Technology roadmap was to build a synthesizing picture of the effects of emerging technologies and technology convergence in the region of Victoria, Australia, up until the year 2020.
and government regulation and incentives. There are also specific systemic bottlenecks in the Victorian construction industry that stimulated the needs for strategic intervention.
Because the regulations are not always consistenntl coordinated between different levels of government, companies that operate across several jurisdictions report high compliance costs due to multiple regulatory frameworrks The second bottleneck is based the project nature of construction, with little replication at the design level.
Government procurement of green buildings; Use of green building standards in procurements; Use of life cycle approach in procurement PRODUCTS AND SOLUTIONS:
Support for standardization is becoming accepted as a legitimate goal for government innovation policy as part of demand-oriented innovation support.
A further policy proposal would be to catalyse government procurement of green buildings, and also to use the green building standards
Collaboration between the key R&d players and the government would be important especially in the Victorian context, due to the fragmented nature of the construction sector.
Innovation policy roadmapping. 189 Eerola, A. and Loikkanen, T. 2009) Governance and Research of Nordic Energy system Transition-Summary Report of the Gorenest Project, VTT Research Notes 2505.
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