S&t

Emerging s&t (23)
New s&t (3)
S&t (225)
S&t areas (7)
S&t development (22)
S&t policy (25)
S&t priority (21)
S&t system (18)

Synopsis: Science: S&t: S&t:

current trends, the state of play and perspectives S&t intelligence for policy-making processes, Research report, IPTS/ESTO, Sevilla, 2001.5 R. Barré, Synthesis of technology foresight, in:

accepted 1 february 2008 Abstract Roadmapping serves both short and long term (strategic) alignment in science and technology (S&t.

Forecasts of the likely future development of S&t are generated; then research and development (R&d) efforts necessary to realize various goals are backcast.

For new and emerging fields of science and technology (S&t) where architectural (radical innovations might occur 1,

is linked back to the underlying dynamics of the emergence of S&t. These dynamics can be explained by the concept of socio-technical path 31,32:

Before delving into the context of lab-on-a-chip for cell analysis we explore what the literature can tell us with regards to insights into emerging path dynamics stemming from sociology of S&t, evolutionary economics and organization studies.

and path creation are combined in a research line in S&t studies around the notion of socio-technical paths 31,32, 41.

Thus over time as the S&t field becomes more stabilised, the patchwork of emerging irreversibilities become part of the affordance structure that shapes ongoing dynamics within the socio-technical path.

strategic management of S&t; the strategy literature; the general R&d, innovattio management and management literatures; futures studies;

Because of the exploratory nature of this first project of Frontiers'FTA programme, we positioned ourselves as experts in the field of S&t dynamics and path creation vis-à-vis the field-level expertise of the workshop participants.

Douglas K. R. Robinson obtained his undergraduate and master's degree in Physics and Space S&t at the University of Leicester (UK) and Universität Siegen (Germany.

following the Bayh-Dole Act of the US. 24 These S&t, societal and economic factors coupled with various policies

he was Director of S&t Foresight for the Office of the National science Advisor to the Prime minister of Canada and Leader of the Office of Technology foresight for the National research council of Canada.

in transdisziplinären Projekten, GAIA 1 (2007) 41 45.56 R. Barré, S&t Foresight as a Collective Learning process In view of Strategic decision making:

Ecole des Mines, Project SOE 1981126,'Management tools and a Management framework for Assessing the Potential of Long-term S&t Options to Become Embedded in Society',TSER Programme of the European commission, January 2002.12 A. Rip, Introduction

and on the other hand, a need to avoid generating an inordinately long list of S&t topic areas requiring excessive amounts of effort to appraise.

In terms of breadth, for example, should participants be asked to assess S&t topic areas against nonscientific criteria? In terms of depth, to what level of detail should criteria be formulated?

'since future investments in research infrastructures or future changes in policies/regulations, for example, can make a significant difference to a country's ability to exploit a particular S&t thematic area.

and it is accepted now generally that the users of S&t knowledge and artefacts, including social and commercial interests,

where researchers and research users were brought together in broad S&t area groupings for the first time to discuss

who generally lacked the breadth of domain knowleddg to reliably position S&t topics into the schema.

owing to a lack of common vision among the various stakeholders on the position and contribution of S&t to Luxembourg's socioeconomic development. 7. 2. Setting the‘granularity'of priorities The priorities identified by the exercise were set at a level

first, the already-mentioned lack of vision of the role of S&t in Luxembourg's development meant that some of the criteria were used rather blindly.

Of particular note to FTA, the great science and technology (S&t) databases cover a significant portion of the world's research output.

The resulting information for btech miningq consists primarily of science and technology (S&t) publication and patent abstract records.

as measured by S&t publications, is hot, o patenting, especially new (priority) patenting is much less recent,

In general, we find that the databases provide much richer S&t information resources with a measure of quality control.

many do use empirical information in S&t arenas. Researchers usually mine the literature to find a few bnuggetsq that speak closely to their interests.

& Social Change 72 (2005) 1070 1081 1078 miningq exploits the information compiled by S&t and other (e g.,

This paper focuses on the idea that informative mining of S&t information resources can be done quickly and powerfully.

Development of information visualizations especially for S&t offers great potential 12 13. To close, this bnewq method brings to bear available S&t information resources

and analytical tools to generate FTA more quickly. Its novelty lies in the approach to technology analyses in support of technology management.

Provide each researcher, development engineer, project manager, intellectual property analyst, etc. with direct, desktop access to a couple of most useful S&t information databases.!

Third, panels that addressed S&t domains with more clearly interpretable titles (e g. health and well-being, materials) found it easier to establish the boundaries of their work than those that had somewhat less conventional

Current Trends, The State of Play and Perspectives, S&t Intelligence for Policy-making processes, European commission EUR 20137 EN, Sevilla, 2001.4 L. Georghiou, Third Generation Foresight Integrating

and capacity building Priority setting for S&t Network building Supporting policy or strategy development Analysing the future potential of technologies Fig. 1. Analysis of objectives of 50 foresight exercises. 1 Thanks

Instrumental The outputs were used to contribute to a joint security technology initiative of Canada as well as strategic S&t investments in the Defence R&d Canada Centre for Security Science.

Policy recommendations were validated thought interviews of about twenty experts in ICT or environmental policy The 8th Japanese technology foresight program Informative Understanding future S&t challenges.

Instrumental The 8th Japanese technology foresight program aims to provide necessary information for making the 3rd S&t basic plan of Japan.

and find out the prior S&t topics to achieve the social goals. Instrumental‘‘Innovation 25''aims to make long-term strategy for Japan.

namely to provide necessary information for making the 2nd Korea S&t Framework plan. Consensual The‘‘Revision of 3rd Korean TF''has analysed the impacts of 19 megatrends & issues,

and for influencing the allocation of S&t resources in CAS. Consensual TF2020 has set up 6 pictures of China development in 2020,

National Technology foresight in China and Technology foresight towards 2020 in China as well as National Technology roadmap in Korea were all strongly informative processes that were initiated to capture experts'views on future S&t challenges Hence,

and how S&t foresight and strategic S&t investments in the new Centre for Security Science could help to acquire those capabilities.

Current Trends, the State of Play and Perspectives S&t Intelligence for Policy-making processes, Institute for Prospective Technological Studies (IPTS), Technical Report EUR-20137-EN, Seville, 2001

Practically any source of insight into the dynamics of science and technology (S&t) their production, communication, application can be utilised as knowledge inputs into FTA.

which are the subject of FTA analysis. It is typical for decision-making about S&t-related issues to require intelligence that extends well beyond

This can be seen as a reflection of the growing complexity of S&t decisions, which is associated with such factors as the combination of multiple scientific and technological knowledge bases in many 7 Naisbitt 36,

Even technocratic FTA has to confront the likelihood that no single organisation will itself contain expertise on all of the matters that bear intimately on a specific set of S&t issues it will be necessary to go out to a wider set of communities.

Perhaps the least important but quite possibly a factor whose importance will grow in coming years is the rise of public concerns and associated social movements around many S&t issues.

issues where S&t‘‘solutions''to widely shared problems may well be contentious (geoengineering and other technological solutions to the climate change crisis as opposed to change in lifestyle and corporate practice);

We may anticipate that developments in S&t that profoundly affect our understanding of what it is to be human (e g. cognitive enhancement, artificial intelligence,

human cloning and chimeras) are especially liable to fuel more extensive public engagement in S&t topics.

More recently, the pace of migration of new science and technology (S&t) has increased under the influence of the widespread use of new socioeconomic communication technologies and the globalisation of the world markets.

exposing the hidden social consequences and concerns for the future of advances, real and imagined, of S&t though in very different ways.

and has support themodern criticismof the role of S&t in human development. During the Cold war nuclear weapons strategies were emphasised by Herman Kahn

and others 5 7. The nuclear threat was seed the for the current call for new forms of governance to cope with the regulation of S&t that is now embedded in the combined phenomena of globalisation and glocalisation of business, with effects on every aspect of modern

By the early 1970s, the clamour for governance of S&t resulted in the formation of the PAU in the UK and the OTA in the USA;

New fora for involving the public in the governance of S&t came in many forms from the 1970s onwards,

a series of diagrams are used later to illustrate some of the issues that will need to be incorporated into any future mantra of governance and the evolution of S&t.

and other activist groups, continues unabated introducing more complex intrusion into developments in S&t. These concerns have been assuaged partially by the evolution of corporate social responsibility (CSR) and the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI), both

Balance was distributed well with economy-ecology leading but S&t, geopolitics, security and culture close behind;

Strong emphasis again on ecology-environment and economy with Society and Culture and S&t close behind;

Distribution toward S&t and energy is different from previous categories; Good range of trigger events and situations;

and social needs on the other''(Cagnin and Keenan, 2008), acknowledging thus the co-evolution of science and technology (S&t) together with society in their approach and work.

Current Trends, the State of Play and Perspectives, S&t Intelligence for Policy-making processes, available at: http://ftp. jrc. es/EURDOC/eur20137en. pdf Tuomi,

Therefore, identifying S&t and innovation priorities for the natural resources sector has become an extremely important issue

In 2007, the RF Ministry of Education and Science initiated the National S&t Foresight until 2025 to identify S&t priorities (Sokolov, 2008a,2009.

Therefore for this additional investigation the RF Ministry of Education and Science initiated the second cycle of the National S&t Foresight until 2030.

i e. to prepare recommendations for shaping Russian national S&t and innovation policy in the sphere of natural resources and environmental protection.

and interviews were conducted with heads of project teams. 3. Russian FS approaches 3. 1 National S&t Foresight:

B estimation of possible timeframes for major S&t breakthroughs; B evaluation of the position of Russian R&d centres in the international S&t landscape;

and B determination of the most relevant steps to be taken to support the development and commercialisation of science and technology.

and implement the federal goal-oriented programme‘‘S&t priorities for Development of the Russian S&t Sector in 2007-2012''.

Eighty-two topics were formulated for these five thematic areas, in the form of briefly described S&t results, promising technologies or innovation products (e g.‘‘

''The methodology of this study included various expert and analytical techniques being engaged to prepare this S&t foresight (analytical research, bilbliometric and patent analysis, interviews with and polling of experts,

These issues were analysed deeply in the FS2 framework. 3. 2 National S&t Foresight: 2030 (FS2) The aim of this study was an evaluation of required resources

and possible innovation projects for the most important S&t fields. The National S&t Foresight: 2030 was based on the FS1 results and also on a renewed version of the National S&t priorities and Critical technologies.

The study covers three thematic levels, the first of which corresponds to the revised list of National S&t priorities:

More than 300 experts from the S&t and business communities, as well as government officials, took part in the exercise.

Topic Importance indexa Expected time of developing S&t solution Possible results (percentage of experts; two top scores) Technology area 1 Technologies for accelerated and efficient recovery of damaged lands, landscapes and biodiversity 97.6 2019 Contributing to dealing with social problems (76.3

In the FS1 framework S&t topics were assessed by different criteria, and in the FS2 framework technology groups were assessed (identified on the basis of the most important and well-developed FS1 topics).

The FS2 criteria for the evaluation of technology groups were identified mostly on the basis of the results of FS1 (see Table I). National S&t Foresight:

B identification of research projects to be funded within federal and sectoral goal-oriented S&t programmes; B designing sectoral strategies for industries;

and B priorities for international S&t co-operation. However, the real contribution of the Delphi study results to the development of policy documents was mostly indirect

In order to prepare direct recommendations for shaping S&t and innovation policy it is necessary to have more detailed and precise information about resource requirements, the evaluation of emerging markets,

whereas the technology roadmaps for perspective product groups created a background for particular measures aimed at development S&t.

and the large number of players, imply the need to use integrated approaches for identifying S&t and innovation priorities for this sector.

design of large-scale innovation projects identification of research projects to be funded within federal and sectoral goal-oriented S&t programmes designing sectoral strategies for industries regional priorities for innovation development priorities

for international S&t cooperation However, the real contribution of the Delphi study results to policy documents was mostly indirect

whereas the technology roadmaps for perspective product groups created a background for particular measures aimed at the development of S&t.

The first of these projects identified major S&t results in the‘‘Rational Use of Natural resources''area,

and the country's international S&t co-operation potential through the development of a national innovation system.

S&t for the 21st century'',Foresight Consolidation Report, available at www. nrc-cnrc. gc. ca/Nordic Innovation Centre (2007),‘Foresight in Nordic innovation systems'',Nordic Innovation

and technology (S&t) changes and shifts in the competitive environment for the preparation of strategic development in an organization,

or quality and help in identifying the gaps between the probable future changes in S&t and the current capability.

and technology (S&t) activities in time to permit appropriate responses; and 3. to anticipate and understand S&t-related shifts or trends in the competitive environment as a preparation for organizational planning and strategic development.

To date, studies on CTI have used a full range of analytical techniques, including content analysis, patent analysis, bibliometrics,

of Science and Technology policy (NISTEP) Foresight and Strategy Planning Team, Korean Institute of S&t Evaluation and Planning (KISTEP), The Science

and governance network-building coupled with avoiding centralised S&t planning. In Germany, FTA is used mainly for addressing the future of existing areas of strength

at the same time, the improved availability of S&t and innovation indicators and the advances in quantitative methods provide more input for quantitative analysis;

For instance, quantitative analysis of this kind offers valuable information for the development of S&t Delphi survey topics,

and internationally devoted to Foresight and S&t and innovation policies; managed several national S&t foresight exercises in Russia,

participated in dozens of international projects. Alexander Sokolov is a member of a number of high-level expert groups at the OECD and other international organisations. 397 K. Haegeman et al./

(what) Framing boundaries Shaped by possibility Extreme to inform the middle Eventuality Backcasting from targets Shaped by probability S&t Roadmaps Predictive Backcasting from principles Shaped by preference The natural step Visionary Empowering stakeholders (who) Expert

The Fast Start to Technology Roadmapping, Planning Your Route to Success, Centre for Technology management, Ifm University of Cambridge, 2001.56 T. J. Gordon, S&t roadmapping, in:

and technology landscape of the United states. The U s. stands virtually alone in specifically avoiding centralized S&t planning

and sciennc and technology (S&t) foresight and other FTA TOOLS by its wide scope and its function to envisage the complexity of future societal problems

Defence S&t Agency Singapore, 2009; Spring et al. 2007; Quiggin, 2007. Other examples were initiated by ministries or departments,

Horizon scanning on the national level, across all policy areas (including S&t opportunities) is a receen development

) The Government office of Science in the UK started its national horizon scanning in 2004.6 This activity covers a wide range of S&t forecasts (Delta Scan) and future developments across all policy domains (Sigma Scan.

7 In the same year, the Netherlands8 started a national horizon scanning activity that covered a wide range of (potential) futuur problems, threats and opportunities in all poliic domains (societal sectors) and in S&t.

S&t (including S&t policy; economy and finance (including its governance; environment (ecological; and politics and public services.

A Table 2. Subcategories Society S&t Economy and finance Environment (ecological) Politics, government, public services Social values S&t reflection Market Hydrosphere Legitimacy-democracy

The netherlands scan contained significantly fewer issuue in the societal domain and the Danish in the S&t domain than the others.

scans Society 18.5 22.4 7. 5 15.6 S&t 16.4 8. 8 15.1 13.7 Economy/finance 21.2 21 6 18.9 20.5 Environment

which contains about 100 S&t issues, the comparison shows that the Dutch scan somehow seems to fall short on issues from the society domain Joint horizon scanning Science

and members of the S&t community through an online Delphi-like survey facilitated by a wiki.

or been an advisor to collaborative foresight projects in several emergiin science and technology (S&t) domains such as:

S&t focus? What, in your opinion, are some of the most successsfu assessments of recent foresight exercises?

In Japan, S&t foresight activities feature a recurriin national iterative Delphi technology poll, and also include a quarterly international journal.

In Finland, the Parliamenntar Committee on the Future is supported by a national fund for R&d (SITRA-government investtment augmented by a significant Nokia share sale in the 1990s) as well as by government S&t focused agencies such as the TEKES, VTT

As present (early 2010) there are some encouraging signs of a revival of interest by the Canadian government in a modest S&t foresight initiative so,

nevertheless some appreciation for the contributions that foresight can make to general S&t preparedness. Based on the studies that were done,

and the US for a number of years followed by administration of industrria research and of government science and technology (S&t) in Australia.

This project is a contribution to the better understanndin of the provision of accelerated technologicca responses to combating EID and biosecurity in the APEC region and of the role of S&t in providiin those responses through the concept of convergiin technologies.

and are also being questioned by those beyond the strict sphere of science and technology (S&t).

demands may be associated with innovation, competitiveness, long-term government planning, subsidies to S&t public policies, and the future of complex themes, such as climate change, demography, biodiversity, bioethanol, energy efficiency etc.

planning for small and very large events such as the last three national S&t conferences organized by the CGEE

we now present an organizational foresight exercise developed for FINEP, the main federal S&t funding agency in Brazil,

and trends in intellecctua property rights (IPR) Mapping S&t national capacity according to data available in CNPQ/Lattes databases and Innovation Portal Expert panels to debate the following themes:

and disseminnatio of results Nanotechnology Mapping current situation and future trends in S&t in Brazil and in a number of selected nations,

and international cooperation) S&t monitoring using text mining techniques applied to relevant international databases Delphi, involving around 1,

S&t funding, nonreimbuursabl grants and loans for firms. FINEP's strategic management plan was developed in 17 months, in an intense and challenging process of looking into the future of the agency and its role in the national ST&I system.

and thus presuppose relatively well-developed and mature S&t institutions, basic capacities and governance mechanisms.

However, Emerging s&t systems, such as China's, combine rapid advances in S&t resources with significant Research priority setting in China. 259 systemic immaturities regarding for example funding allocattio mechanisms,

in modern times it has lagged behind Western countries in S&t (Ke 2004). Beginning with the founding of People's republic of china in 1949, a Socialist centralized S&t system was built in the 1950s by adding the Soviet model of centralized planning onto the S&t system that had emerged in the Republic of china (e g.

Five S&t‘forces'or actors were identified: the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), the public research institutes affiliated to the ministries,

During the‘pre-reform period',the development of the S&t forces was interrupted frequently by political movements, especially during the Cultural Revolution (1966 76.

and open-door policy and was watershed an important event for S&t in China. At the opening ceremony, then-Premier Deng xiaoping Figure 1. Phases in Chinese S&t policy making.

M. Benner et al. declared that S&t were‘the productive force'rather than an ideological category,

and attacked during the Cultural Revolution and laying the foundation for a politically favorable environmmen for S&t.

this entailed a reconstruction of the S&t institutes as well as the universities and, in particular, a modest connection between research and commercialization (for analyses of the transition see Feigenbaum 2003;

while launching the National Natural science Foundation of China (NSFC) and national S&t programs for researchers to apply to on a competitive base.

A decision on accelerating the progress of S&t was launched in 1995, proposing a national strategy entitled‘strategy of revitalizing the nation through science and education'(kejiao xingguo).

The decision on‘acceleration of progress in S&t'marked a further step towards orienting S&t towards China's social and economic needs

President Jiang Zemin also emphasized the importance of indigenous S&t capability. From the beginning of the reform period, S&t constituted one of the‘four modernizations'identified by Deng xiaoping (and earlier by Zhou Enlai) as pillars of the reform,

the other three being agriculture, industry and national defense. Throughout the era, Chinese leaders have pointed to science as a key to economic progress and competitiveness, most recently through the concept of‘scientific development'and the launching of the indigennou innovation strategy (e g.

2. 2 Governance of the S&t system An important element characterizing the governance of China's S&t system throughout the phases identified before is the strong involvement of China's top leaders in S&t decision-making.

The Ministry of S&t (MOST) plays a key role both through its responsibility for formulating S&t policy for example in the Medium and Long-term Plan and in the five-year plans for S&t development and as a key dispenser of research funds (Springut et al. 2011.

such as the Chinese Academy of S&t for Development (CASTED) but also the Institute for Policy Management at the CAS and academics at selected universities, such as Tsinghua.

Finally, provincial governments and S&t offices play an increasingly important role in setting priorities for industrria development

The third level concerns the design of the national S&t programs while the fourth stratum is at the level of research organizattion (i e. the CAS) and funding agencies (i e. the NSFC.

and medium-and long-term plans for S&t (MLP). Thus China has continued on the Soviet model of using plans (jihua,

or guihua) to drive the development of S&t, as well as economic and societal development. The latest MLP was presented in February 2006

and implemented by national S&t programs. China has launched various national S&t programs (jihua. 1 The most salient programs in recent history are the National Key technologies R&d Program established in 1984,

the State High-tech R&d Program (also known as the 863 Program), initiated in 1986 and the State Basic R&d Program (also known as the 973 Program), established in 1997.

and national S&t programs are not independent of each other. Rather they are connected, with the former guiding and providing an overarching framework for the latter (in their five-year plans).

The MOST RECENTLY proposed that the structure of national S&t programs be changed from the‘3+2'(three core programs:

Construction of S&t Infrastructures and Construction of the S&t Industrialization Environment) 3 to‘basic+mega',reflecting the greater emphasis placed on basic research and infrastructure,

S&t achievements State Key and New Product Program 1988 Support new high-tech products for key industries 9th Five-year Plan National Program

with high value-added and foster international competitiveness 10th Five-Year Plan Agriculture S&t Transfer Fund 2001 Foster development of S&t achievements in agriculture

national goals Date of creation unknown International S&t Cooperation Plan 2001? Use global S&t resources to develop critical technologies;

provide a platform for international cooperation State Engineering Technology research Centers Provide technologies and equipment to firms Soft Science Research program Provide reliable scientific advice to national and local policy-makers Source:

Key data for expendditur by Central Government on the main S&t programs is shown in Table 3. Fig. 2 classifies China's main S&t programs,

based on data on national S&t programs provided in the China Statistical Yearbook on Science and Technology (2009).

or thematic centers of excellence can be juxtaposed with programs aimed at raising the general level of S&t throughout the country.

Table 2. Structure of national S&t programs Research priority setting in China. 263 By classifying national S&t programs into these categories,

we reveal a strong emphasis of China's S&t programs on mission and academic excellence,

'Thus, the‘Innofund+programs'includes Innofund, Spark, Torch, Agricultural S&t Transfer Fund, National Engineering research Centers (data from 2007) and the New National Products Program.

The‘National S&t Infrastructure+Programs'include the National S&t Infrastructure Program, the S&t Basic Work Program, the Special Technology development Project for Research institutions and the NSFC Fund for Less Developed Regions.

Table 3. Allocations for S&t by Central Government in main S&t programs (in million RMB) Item 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

1614 1624 3000 5441 5066 National science and Technology Infrastructure Program 100 593 573 754 686 24 S&t Basic Work 200 200

102 150 200 Torch Program 70 70 70 70 70 108 139 152 Agricultural S&t Transfer Fund 400 200 200

further confirming that government S&t funding is concentrated strongly on mission-based research. 3. 2 Mission Traditionally,

the S&t programs of the People's republic of china have had a clear, and sometimes overwhelming, mission orientation, often identifying specific areas where radical innovations are sought.

its major goal is to address pressing S&t issues for national economic and social development. 5 Finally,

The funding of the 973 Program by S&t fields is shown in Table 4. The most salient example is the 973 Projects where the average funding for one project is 30 million RMB, about 100 times larger

and in the megasciienc projects which were launched as a new national S&t program after the MLP.

'Hence, Table 4. Allocation for S&t by Central Government in S&t programs by fields: the Case 973 Program (in million RMB) Item 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Total 589 686 800 897 983

aiming at promoting the development of high-tech industry and the use of S&t in rural economic development, respectively.

as are the Agricultural S&t Transfer Fund and the New National Products Program. Overall it could be argued that S&t spending by China's government spending has been focused more on generating knowledge than on utilizing it.

This is not an uncommon phenomenon when compared with many other countries. However, the imbalance acquires greater significance

2011), further accentuating the bias against diffusion in the S&t programs. 3. 5 Institution-and capacity-building Several programs aim at building and strengthening China's emerging institutions and capacities.

Within the S&t programs, the most obvious are the National S&t Infrastructure Fund and the NSFC Fund for less developed regions.

Other programs with institution-and capacity-building features are the S&t Basic Program and the Special Technology development Project for Research institutions.

and linking China into the international S&t community. Recently, however, the KIP has linked increasingly research at its institutes to mission objectives,

and Lundvall (2006) who argue that the investments in S&t have not been supported sufficiently by institutional development.

The national S&t programs, such as the 863 Program, the 973 Program or the KIP, are created outside the temporal planning cycle in response to problems

Several national S&t programs and initiatives have been created following public appeals or statements made by well-known scientists.

is considered widely to have been the response by then-Premier Li peng to concerns voiced by scientists at the Political Consultation Conference (zhengxie) in March 1997 that basic research was being neglected in S&t funding.

For the above-listed S&t programs, which are implemennte outside the five-year or medium-and long-term planning cycle,

These two groups were responsible for identifying key S&t issues relevant for the next medium-and long-term plan.

In June 2003,20 key S&t issues were identified and studies were commissioned. The process surrounding the strategic studies was open (except for the national defense issue.

In addition to the domestic process, workshops were held with international experts at the Multi-S&t Minister Forum in Shenzhen in October 2003,

Overall, the processes surrounding priority-setting in China's national S&t programs are characterized by formal and elaborate processes with an emphasis on input by scientific experts,

‘Feet on the ground'(lidi) means that Chinese S&t should be targeted at China's strategic economic, social and national defense needs.

drawing S&t ever closer into the political core. The 1978 Science Conference functioned as a starting-point for a renovation of the S&t system by acknowledging S&t as a productive force.

This paved the way for the 1985,1995 and 2005 decisions and plans to strengthen the S&t infrastructure,

linking investments in S&t to broader societal goals which gave science policy a widened political mandate.

More recently, a‘post-catching up'strategy has emerged, integrating S&t with a new evolutiionar path for China,

as a leader in innovation, but also a society balancing economic growth with social stabillit and ecological balance.

we still find a strong emphasis on grandiose projects, less on the processes and the governance of S&t and reforms of S&t institutions.

459). 4. Some suggestions about the reform of the national S&t programs management (guanyu guojia keji jihua guangli gaige de ruogan yijian),<www. most. gov

Shi, D. 2004)‘ The policy-making of the medium-and long-term plan for S&t',<http://www. 93. gov. cn/kjxg/ghdt/ghdt16. htm>accessed 20 may 2011.

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