china

China

Asia-pacific (26)
Austria (131)
Brazil (5)
China (196)
Country (511)
Eu (475)
Germany (222)
Luxembourg (118)
Russia (105)
Spain (297)
Switzerland (95)
Usa (120)

China and India, might also become important competitors, but a flexible interpretation of the Triad regions can easily include any relevant countries. 571 A. Havas/Technological forecasting & Social Change 75 (2008) 558 582 Table 2 Features of the ERIA in two

China's Global Designs! The United states of Asia! Elderly Assumptions! Beauty Medicine and the Worried Well!

Concepts and Practice, Elgar, Cheltenham, 2007, pp. 170 183.3 R. Mu, Z. Ren, S. Yuan, Y. Quiao, Technology foresight towards 2020 in China:

55 Zhongguancun East Road, Beijing 100190, PR China 1. Introduction In the realm of future-oriented technology analysis (FTA) 1 that encompasses foresight,

National Technology foresight in China Informative Understanding future S&t developments and needs. NTFC aims to provide also necessary information for making five-year plan of science & technology development.

Technology foresight towards 2020 in China Informative TF2020 aims to provide necessary information for making long term strategy for science and technology development in China,

Consensual TF2020 has set up 6 pictures of China development in 2020, and identified 734 key technologies in 8 research fields based on the Delphi survey.

National Technology foresight in China and Technology foresight towards 2020 in China as well as National Technology roadmap in Korea were all strongly informative processes that were initiated to capture experts'views on future S&t challenges Hence,

In practice, the technology foresight in Korea and China has borrowed lots of experiences from technology foresight projects in Japan. 3. 3. Priorities foresight (consensual perspectives

since 1970.6 FTA projects in China in broad sense can be traced to‘‘The 12 Years Science Development Planning''made in 1956,

The outcomes of consensual and instrumental technology foresight activities in Asian countries such as Japan, Korea and China have played increasingly important role in the policy-making process for science & technology and innovation.

China is planning to make the 12th five years plan for science and technology development by using the knowledge generated from roadmap activity.

political and military region Different environmental abuses Reversal of globalization and growth of anti-globalization India and China create increased demand for petrol and minerals Increased widespread diseases

and climate change lead to descent scenarios Ecology Economy 50 Global financial imbalances create national commercial rivalries China's role in international affairs:

and response of the US toward China's growth Kyoto protocol full implementation Political resistance to economic globalization and deregulation Rising economies demand for energy, electricity drives modernisation

shift to alternatives Ecology Economy 32 Global trade conflicts intensify between developed and developing countries Civil war in China Unexpected freeze of northern hemisphere pushes population to immigrate south G8

Runaway global warming Increase of poverty China leads world in green and renewable energies Accelerated arctic ice shelf melting push international climate treaties Rising

Economy 27 Widening the rift between rich and poor More rights of China Induced migration due to inundation and climate change Price hikes in energy,

materials and food Democratisation of China Sunspot theory of climate change Privatisation criticised more China implodes due to several political conflicts Diverse opinions on environmental issues Geopolitics

Huang a a School of management and Economics, Beijing Institute of technology, Beijing, China b Technology policy and Assessment Center, Georgia Institute of technology, Atlanta, GA,

Tingting Maa, Alan L. Porterb and Lu Huanga*aschool of Management and Economics, Beijing Institute of technology, Beijing, China;

But the dominant funding source is NSFC (China) with 216 papers acknowledging its support. Downloaded by University of Bucharest at 05:05 03 december 2014 Text mining of information resources 851 Figure 4. DSSC science overlay map.

SCI tallies since 2009 have found China to be dominant with 440 papers including at least one Chinese author.

Notes on contributors Ying Guo is a faculty member in the School of management and Economics, Beijing Institute of technology of China.

Tingting Ma is a Phd candidate in Management Science and Engineering, Beijing Institute of technology of China.

South korea and China, and used as sources for future technology themes analysis. A standard mapping taxonomy based on international patent classification system was used to map out the technology concept described in these future technology themes.

In some Asian countries such as Japan, South korea and China, foresight has been taken as a tool for priority setting or R&d agenda setting.

Also, China has used the result of foresight for selection of their critical technologies. Even in some small countries in Europe like Austria

Meanwhile, the communication effect of Delphi studies and the value of the process are acknowledged also. 2. 2 Basic information for the scanned Delphi topics The Delphi topics used for sustainable energy are chosen from foresight reports from Japan, South korea and China.

I Basic information for scanned foresight reports from Japan, South korea and China Japan South korea China Report Title The 8th Science and Technology foresight Survey Delphi Analysis Prospect of future society

& future technology of Korea-challenges and opportunities (Korea 2030) China's Report of Technology foresight 2004 Report year 2005 2005 2004 Project promoter/initiator Ministry of Education

Table II Overall procedures for mapping of Delphi topics Procedure Description Step 1 Collect Delphi topics from foresight reports of Japan, South korea and China Step 2

‘‘time of international realization before 2020''for South korea and all Delphi topics from China, are used as the main target for analysis and for comparison.

In China, all the topics were regarded as having realization before the year 2020. Table V summarizes the realization time distribution of Delphi topics in Japan,

South korea and China. 3. 1 Mapping technology interactions in Delphi topics 3. 1. 1 Summary result of the mapping in three countries.

South korea and China is shown in Figure 2. The y axis denotes the source technology and the x axis denotes the application technology.

South korea or China reports are labeled with symbols. Different symbol represent different meanings. For example,‘‘O''means the technology interaction can be identified simultaneously in Japan (JP), South korea (KR) and China (CN),

'''means the technology interaction can be identified only in Japan (JP) and China (CN), and so on. Interactions within the technology field are shown not in Figure 2. By viewing the union result of the mapping from the application technology side, conventional energy technology 1 (Electrical machinery, apparatus,

energy) is a hot technology application before the year 2020, where the possible source technologies comprise technologies 7 (IT methods for management),

and the possible Table V Realization time distribution of Delphi topic in Japan, South korea and China Before 2020 2021-2030 After 2031 Time horizon Topics Ratio (percent

0 0 China 83 100 0 0 0 0 VOL. 15 NO. 1 2013 jforesight jpage 61 source technologies are derived from technologies 1

new grid technology/micro grids/stability of distributed generation South korea Distributed electric power/solar power China Ultra-large scale/power system security and defense;

bio-energy/battery technology China Biofuel; biomass gasification power generation 27 (Engines, pumps, turbines) 1 (Electrical machinery, apparatus, energy) Japan Large capacity combined cycle power generation

ocean energy/seawater desalination China Integrated gasification combined cycle 35 (Civil engineering) 1 (Electrical machinery, apparatus, energy) Japan Large-area thin-film solar cells;

conversion efficiency South korea Solar and fuel cell power system China Hydropower river basin development with complex conditions; large and very large grid-connected/photovoltaic power plant development in desert 1 (Electrical machinery, apparatus, energy) 32 (Transport) Japan Polymer electrolyte fuel cells

hybrid power system/vehicle use China Hybrid power system VOL. 15 NO. 1 2013 jforesight jpage 63 As shown in Figure 3, technology 1 (Electrical machinery, apparatus,

3. 1. 4 Mapping result of China. In China, 37 of the total 83 mapped Delphi topics (44.6 percent) show only interaction within a single technology.

Interaction across technologies can be deduced from the remaining 46 Delphi topics, and the deduced interactions are demonstrated by a directional social network analysis (SNA) in Figure 4. In total 50 linkages are identified from these 46 Delphi topics.

Technology 12 (Control) is a hot source technology in China. The possible application technologies comprise technologies 1 (Electrical machinery, apparatus, energy), 30 (Thermal processes and apparatus), 32 (Transport) and 35 (Civil engineering),

The analyzed results for Japan, South korea and China are demonstrated in Figures 6-8. In Figure 6 (Japan's result),

Most of the interactions are related to application technology 1 (Electrical machinery, apparatus, Figure 5 Technology interactions across WIPO technologies for Delphi topics from China PAGE 66

''The mapping distribution of the Delphi topics of China shows that about half of the important topics are interacted self (Figure 8;

technologies in top 25 percent important Delphi topics from China VOL. 15 NO. 1 2013 jforesight jpage 69 technology of solar cells,

''In summary, by mapping the important topics from the Delphi survey results of Japan, South korea and China,

In mapping of China's important topics, almost half show interactions within a single technology,

Also, technology 23 (Chemical engineering) is emphasized especially in China's important topics, and is to be used as a source technology to technology 24 (Environmental technology).

This technology linkage reflects that the challenges faced by China, i e. the environmental issues caused by the mass use of conventional energy such as coal,

a Chengdu Library of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu 610041, PR China b School of economics and Management, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu 610031, PR China c

School of Public policy, Georgia Institute of technology, Atlanta, GA 30332-0345, USA d College of Computer science & Technology, Huaqiao University, Xiamen, 361021, PR China e

Chengdu Library of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu 610041, PR China. Tel.:++86 13811903239.

whereas other Asian countries, such as Singapore, Hong kong, China (and also, India and Indonesia), have low uncertainty avoidance indexes.

Currently, RIKEN, the leading governmental research institute in Japan, is developpin laboratories in collaboration with Thailand, Vietnam, China, Indonesia

Research priority setting in China Mats Benner1, Li Liu2, *and Sylvia Schwaag Serger1 1lund University research Policy Institute, P o box 117, SE-221 00 Lund, Sweden, 2institute of Science, Technology and Society, School of Humanities

and Social sciences, Tsinghua University, 100084 Beijing, China*Corresponding author. Email: liuli66@tsinghua. edu. cn Few countries have increased their expenditure on r&d as rapidly as has China in recent years.

However, so far, little academic attention has been paid to how decisions are taken and priorities set in Chinese research policy.

This paper analyzes priority-setting in China's recent research policy. We find that China's research policy is driven by a variety of different,

and sometimes conflicting, objectives, leading to a multitude of often overlapping initiatives. Secondly, missionaan excellence-driven research dominates over institution-and capacity-building and diffusion objectives.

Aside from contributing to the understanding of China's research and innovation policy and system, this paper provides insights into policy change in China more generally and also into the processes

China, science policy, research, innovation. 1. Introduction and problem definition In recent years, there has been a rapidly growing interest in the development of science, technology and innovation (STI) in the People's republic of china.

So far, scholarly interest has focused on the overall evolution and design of China's science and technology (S&t system (Ke 2004;

and interests shaping the priorities in China's R&d programs and policies. The choice of China may be motivated by its sheer importtanc in the world scientific system,

where it is quickly moving from laggard to leader. The question remains how that transformation is related to policy practice, that is,

In this sense, the outline of a Chinese research policy model is therefore indicative of a more general policy change in China.

and which of these models may be suited best to fulfill the goal of making China a global scientific superpoowe (see also Hao 2008).

Thus, China can be categorized clearly as a top-down and centralized planning system, which focuses on large-scale accomplishments and numerical accomplishments, with a preference for grandiose plans.

'This indicates that China is not moving towards a substitution of centralized reseaarc governance with a fully fledged pluralist system without strong coordinating mechanisms a`la Russia after the Soviet period (Graham and Dezhina 2008.

Instead, China seems to be forging its own way with an evolving mixture of planning, decentralization and deliberation. 1. 1 Trends in setting priorities Explicit models for science policy priority-setting devellope late and with great tensions.

However, Emerging s&t systems, such as China's, combine rapid advances in S&t resources with significant Research priority setting in China. 259 systemic immaturities regarding for example funding allocattio mechanisms,

How are research priorities set in China?.What are its defining characteristics and practices: for which purposes is funding allocated,

2. China's S&t system and policy: An overview 2. 1 A short history While China has a long history of scientific and technologgica discovery,

in modern times it has lagged behind Western countries in S&t (Ke 2004). Beginning with the founding of People's republic of china in 1949, a Socialist centralized S&t system was built in the 1950s by adding the Soviet model of centralized planning onto the S&t system that had emerged in the Republic of china (e g.

Overall, the pre-reform S&t system in China was characterized by a disconnection between research and commercialization on the one hand,

After the end of the Cultural Revolution, the direction of China's development policy, and with it its S&t policy, changed radically (Gu and Lundvall 2006;

and open-door policy and was watershed an important event for S&t in China. At the opening ceremony, then-Premier Deng xiaoping Figure 1. Phases in Chinese S&t policy making.

As China started the transition from a planned economy to a market economy, this entailed a reconstruction of the S&t institutes as well as the universities and, in particular,

when the China Communist party Central Committee (CCPCC) issued policy documents outlining three major systems reforms: of the economic system in 1984, of the S&t system in 1985,

while launching the National Natural science Foundation of China (NSFC) and national S&t programs for researchers to apply to on a competitive base.

The decision on‘acceleration of progress in S&t'marked a further step towards orienting S&t towards China's social and economic needs

2. 2 Governance of the S&t system An important element characterizing the governance of China's S&t system throughout the phases identified before is the strong involvement of China's top leaders in S&t decision-making.

but also the fundamental policy stance on opening up China for trade and investment, for example through accession to the World trade organization and the policy of attracting foreign technollog and investments.

Thus China has continued on the Soviet model of using plans (jihua, or guihua) to drive the development of S&t,

Priorities expreesse in the MLP include‘strategic priorities'(zhanlue Research priority setting in China. 261 zhongdian),

China has launched various national S&t programs (jihua. 1 The most salient programs in recent history are the National Key technologies R&d Program established in 1984,

but also on the allocation of resources into mission-driven activities (see Table 2). 4 Table 1. China's R&d programs Program Starting year Objective 6th Five-year

1986 National High-technology R&d Program (863 Program) 1986 Foster China's overall innovation capacity in high-tech sectors and enhance its international competitiveness Spark Program 1986

Key data for expendditur by Central Government on the main S&t programs is shown in Table 3. Fig. 2 classifies China's main S&t programs,

based on data on national S&t programs provided in the China Statistical Yearbook on Science and Technology (2009).

Table 2. Structure of national S&t programs Research priority setting in China. 263 By classifying national S&t programs into these categories,

we reveal a strong emphasis of China's S&t programs on mission and academic excellence,

2009 China Statistical Yearbook on Science and Technology Data from 2008. Note: In order to simplify, some programs have been grouped into one‘bubble'.

MOST (2009)( see Note 2) and China Statistical Yearbook on Science and Technology (2009).**Data for 863 Program are from MOST (2009)( see Note 2),

China Science and Technology indicators (2008) and from<http://www. sts. org. cn>accessed 20 may 2011.264.

improve China's indigenoou innovation capability, and improve industrial competitiveenes and upgrade in general. While the mission orientation has remained prominent throughout the history of the People's republic of china,

listing for example the developmmen of a high-speed train as one of its objectives. 3. 3 Excellence or concentration Several of China's plans and programs are driven clearly by

MOST (see Note 2) and China Statistical Yearbook on Science and Technology (2009). Research priority setting in China. 265 the ideal of planning also shapes and influences programs for excellence.

Finally, the State Key Laboratory Program seeks to concentrate resources in a few centers of excellence,

it could be argued that S&t spending by China's government spending has been focused more on generating knowledge than on utilizing it.

While there is an abundance of capital in China today, the funding system for commercialization of new firms,

2011), further accentuating the bias against diffusion in the S&t programs. 3. 5 Institution-and capacity-building Several programs aim at building and strengthening China's emerging institutions and capacities.

The 211 Program aims to create a critical mass of world-class universities in China.

is to strengthen China's higher education system by funding around 40 universities out of a total of around 2, 000 regular institutions of higher education in China (Marginson 2006).

A further indication of the‘bipolar'nature of China's university system is that the top nine universities,

which strengthen China's S&t system by conducting world-class research, transferring research results to industry, providing S&t policy advice,

and linking China into the international S&t community. Recently, however, the KIP has linked increasingly research at its institutes to mission objectives,

and program design in China. We focus primarily on the so-called meta-level, using examples from some of China's most important programs and plans. 266.

M. Benner et al. 4. 1 Setting the agenda Chinese S&t policy-making can be divided into componeent

The five-year plans are the most obvious and structured tool of China's economic planning process in the sense that that it is clear to everyone

these appeals tend to address widely known issues or problems in China's S&t system. In some cases they may even be encouraged by the government, letting experts point to problem areas

. and Fangyun Chen) to national leaders, calling for the acceleration of China's high-tech development. They stressed the need to meet the challenges of the global technology revolution and competition and pointed to the US Strategic Defense Initiatives as well as Europe's EUREKA Program.

The MOST propagated the idea that China should pursue the idea of‘indigenous innovation 'or‘homegrown innovation'and strive to reduce China's dependence on foreign Technology research priority setting in China. 267 (Mei and Luo 2005).

In contrast, some economists, such as Justin Yifu Lin, argued that the country should continue to rely on China's comparative advantages (Lin et al. 2003.

A related debate centered on the impact of foreign direct investment, which had been encouraged strongly by Chinese official policy,

on China's technological upgrading, with MOST expressing skepticism (Mei and Luo 2005). During 2005, officials involved in the drafting sought input from foreign experts

Overall, the processes surrounding priority-setting in China's national S&t programs are characterized by formal and elaborate processes with an emphasis on input by scientific experts,

Although the drafting of the medium-and long-term plan included structures for stakeholder involvement and transparency, overall, priority-setting in China's research policy tends to be characterized by a top-down selection of both thematic areas and fundamental development strategies.

‘Feet on the ground'(lidi) means that Chinese S&t should be targeted at China's strategic economic, social and national defense needs.

and strengthening China's international prestige. Furthermore, the increasing research investments are expected to provide the foundattio for future economic growth,

allowing China to move up the value chain, and to solve many of China's daunting challenges,

by providing techniica solutions for overcoming problems such as scarcity of resources, provision of energy, and environmental degradation.

integrating S&t with a new evolutiionar path for China, as a leader in innovation, but also a society balancing economic growth with social stabillit and ecological balance.

In general, China is moving in the direction of pluralist priority-setting, but even bottom-up consultation processes bear traces of central control.

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