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Trends were appearing in terms of focus of countries at different stages of economic development with those countries with lower development levels favouring a socioeconomic focus while those with higher levels of economic development lean towards a techno-economic focus.
The paper shows that concepts applied to biological evolution are applicable, through useful metaphors, to economics and technology assessment.
Neo-Schumpeterian economics; Evolutionary economics; Social studies of technology; Policy strategy Available online at www. sciencedirect. com Technological forecasting & Social Change 75 (2008) 462 482 Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: e. anders. eriksson@foi. se (E. A. Eriksson), matthias. weber@arcs. ac. at (K. M. Weber.
uncertainty and interactivity. 1 Even if certain 1 In particular evolutionary and Neo-Schumpeterian economics as well as Social Studies of Technology have made important contributions 2. 464 E. A Eriksson,
And it is enhanced by coherent actions of a range of key decisionmakker in research policy, economy and society.
one can observe similar developments in technology assessment where the growing prominence of social, economic, environmental and ethical concerns related to scientific and technological developments has led to a strengthening of participatory and constructive approaches 8, 9. Here,
In particular the increased modularity of technological solutions that is a key tenet of the network economy is an argument for considering elementary options as more loosely coupled.
This suggests an approach more inspired by portfolio selection in financial economics. However, it must be kept in mind that despite advances in modularity,
In a globalised and interdependent economy, not even the largest countries are in a position to fully dominate technoloogica development,
Elgar Companion to Neo-Schumpeterian Economics, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, 2007, pp. 1071229 3 J. Gavigan, Panorama de la Prospective en Europa.
Technology policy and Economic Performance: Lessons from Japan, Pinter, London, 1987.45 B.-A. Lundvall (Ed.),National systems of Innovation, Towards a Theory of innovation and Interactive learning, Pinter, London, 1992.46 A. Bergek, S. Jacobsson, B
Journal of Ecological Economics; International Journal of Foresight and Innovation policy. Ahti Salo (M. Sc. 1987, D. Tech. 1992) is Professor at the Systems analysis Laboratory with research interests in decision analysis, decision support systems, technology foresight, and risk management.
Methodologies and selected applications Knut Blind Regulation and Innovation Competence Center Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation research, Germany Berlin University of Technology, Faculty Economics and Management
, Chair of Innovation Economics, VWS 2, Müller-Breslau-Str. D-10623 Berlin, Germany Received 28 september 2006;
Economics and Management, Chair of Innovation Economics, VWS 2, Müller-Breslau-Str. D-10623 Berlin, Germany.
policy-makers involved in regulatory policies are being held more accountable for the significant economic resources, as well as the political capital invested in regulatory management systems now established in most OECD countries.
but also national research agencies and businesses, in their efforts to cope with the increasing complexity of new technologies and decision environments, in an increased techno-economic competition worldwide 9. Since the 1990s,
Although these approaches largely failed, due to the inbuilt simplification of the actual dynamics of social, economic and technological developments, some studies nevertheless provoked a lively discussion about the future 14
prospect the potential impacts of current research, technology and regulatory policy, focus selectively on economic, technological, social and ecological areas as well as to start monitoring and detailed research in these fields.
The Empirical Economics of Standards. Department of Trade and Industry (ed.),London, pp. 76 120,2005.
Handbook of Quantitative Science and Technology research, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht (The netherlands), 2004.21 K. Blind, The Economics of Standards Theory, Evidence, Policy, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham
Proceedings of the 3rd IEEE Conference on Standardisation and Innovation in Information technology, 2003, pp. 27 35, Delft. 24 H. Grupp, The Foundations of the Economics of Innovation theory, Measurement and Practice
Dr. Knut Blind is an economist by training and holds the chair on Innovation Economics at the Berlin University of Technology since 2006.
In addition he is head of the competence center Regulation and Innovation of the Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation research.
Before delving into the context of lab-on-a-chip for cell analysis we explore what the literature can tell us with regards to insights into emerging path dynamics stemming from sociology of S&t, evolutionary economics and organization studies.
and highlight relevant notions. 2. 1 Insights from the literature into the notion of path From literature on evolutionary economics,
Studies in economic history, organizational dynamics and institution theory have given also rise to the notion of paths.
Making Use of Recent insights from Sociology and Economics of Technology, Technol. Anal. Strateg. Manag. 7 (4)( 1995) 417 431.3 Richard E. Albright, Thomas A. Kappel, Roadmapping in the corporation, Res.
New Directions in the Sociology and History of Technology, The MIT Press, Cambridge Massachusetts, 1987.37 P. A. David, Clio and the economics of QWERTY, American Economic Review, vol
. 75,1985, pp. 332 337.38 W. B. Arthur, Positive feedbacks in the economy, Scientific American (February), 1990, pp. 80 85.536 D. K. R. Robinson
Sci. 17 (2)( 1987) 257 293.44 M. Callon, Techno-economic Networks and Irreversibility, in: John Law (Ed.),A Sociology of Monsters?
Essays on Power, Technology and Domination, Routledge, London, 1991, pp. 132 161.45 M. Callon, The Dynamics of Techno-economic Networks, in:
as well as the interaction of the system with the broader socio-technological-economic-political environment. Available online at www. sciencedirect. com Technological forecasting & Social Change 75 (2008) 539 557 Corresponding author.
namely the goal of becoming the most competitive and dynamic knowledgebaase economy in the world. 3 In parallel,
'4 Notwithstanding the importance of knowledge in previous types of societies, several authors acknowledge a shift in the economic structure of modern societies away from a‘material'input driven economy towards a knowledge-based
input economy. They associate the increasing role of knowledge in the emerging knowledge societies with the increased density
They are considered important prerequisites for knowledge-based economic growth because knowledge-based economic growth is considered typically to be dependent on innovation.
This in turn reveals the importance not only of technological innovations, but also of social changes and the building of social 4 For an analysis of the major findings of the literature review see 1. 541 E. Amanatidou,
K. Guy/Technological forecasting & Social Change 75 (2008) 539 557 capital as key factors underpinning the more technical features of the knowledge-based economy and the realisation of a‘knowledge society'.
and impacts (both direct and indirect) and with the broader socio-technological-economic-political environment.
Seen in the context of a transition economy and a political system under extreme pressure to embrace change during the EU pre-accession phase,
as well as the interaction of the system with the broader socio-technological-economic-political environment. The model presented in Fig. 3a
Public policy in Knowledge-based Economies. Foundations and Frameworks, Edward Elgar, 2003.12 H. Nowotny, P. Scott, M. Gibbons, Rethinking Science.
Methods and Applications, Cambridge university Press, United kingdom, 1994.23 O. E. Williamson, The economics of organisation: the transaction cost approach, American Journal of Sociology 87 (3)( 1981) 548 575.556 E. Amanatidou, K. Guy/Technological forecasting & Social Change 75 (2008
A methodological experiment Attila Havas Institute of Economics, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budaörsi út 45.
and economy in the 12th to 15th century in Europe as this major institutional innovation is described by P. A. David, masked in the language of our contemporary discussions of university research and training policies 1,
globalisation of the economy and research; emergence of new research players; changing science society links and societal demands towards universities;
societal and economic factors coupled with various policies and regulations may give rise to a number of future trends, some
economists have different views even on the appropriate level of analysis: products, firms, value chains (production networks),(sub-national) regions, nations,
successful regions Research agenda An appropriate balance between societal and techno-economic issues Focus on techno-economic issues;
and the societal and technoeconnomi requirements of an ERIA in the Double success EU Universities understand the societal and techno-economic requirements of an ERIA in the Double success EU,
particularly relevant for universities to play their societal role by better understanding the close relationships between societal and techno-economic issues,
mainly integrating disciplines relevant for tackling techno-economic (competitiveness) issues (i e. somewhat neglecting societal issues) 34 The likely impacts of further drivers,
e g. how to meet the new social and economic requirements; how to take advantage of major technological,
Technicalchange and Economic theory, Pinter, London, 1988.11 C. Edquist (Ed.),Systems of Innovations: Technologies, Institutions and Organizations, Pinter, London, 1997.12 J. Fagerberg, D c. Mowery, R. R. Nelson (Eds.
The Oxford Handbook of Innovation, Oxford UP, Oxford, 2005.13 C. Freeman, The economics of technical change:
J. Econ. 18 (5)( 1994) 463 514.14 B.-Å. Lundvall, S. Borrás, The Globalising Learning Economy:
Towards a Knowledge-Based Economy, Office for Official Publications of the European communities, Luxembourg, 2003.39 OECD, Main Science and Technology indicators, OECD, Paris, 2006.40 M. Thorne (Ed.),Universities
Competitiveness and economic growth in the ECE region, Geneva, 23,february 2004 47 K. Aiginger, A. Guger, The European Socio-economicmodel:
Attila Havas (MA 1983, Phd 1997) is a Senior Research fellow at the Institute of Economics, Hungarian Academy of Sciences (e-mail:
His academic interests are in economics of innovation theory and practice of innovation policy, and technology foresight. In 1997 2000 he was Programme Director of TEP, the Hungarian technology foresight programme.
disciplines and intellectual traditions and paradigms and this we believe is consistent with the dynamism of transition to a knowledge-based economy;
In many respects the BMBF foresight demonstrates how in practice many of the new approaches are actively engaging a changing view of policy for the knowledge economy.
Tech. in systems analysis from the Helsinki University of Technology and MSC in environmental economics from the University of Helsinki.
The actual economic and institutional arrangements necessary to create flexible and distributed networks may have been captured in the regional development literature 13.
Today a balanced consideration of environmental, social and economic aspects is necessary 16. Strategic planning processes are a key for determining the appropriateness,
context factors like economic, demographic and settlement development, future political culture and environmental regulations. They select the most influencing
These economic, ecological, social and governance objectives were elaborated in more detail and specified for the region.
when hygienic standards declined in a dire economic context. Cost minimization would receive a high priority
Future-oriented technology analysis Strategic intelligence for an Innovative economy, Springer, Berlin, 2008.20 O. Da Costa, P. Warnke, C. Cagnin, F. Scapolo, The impact of foresight on policy-making:
Strategic intelligence for an Innovative economy, Springer, Heidelberg, 2008.33 R. Barré, M. Keenan, Revisiting foresight rationales: what lessons from the social sciences and humanities?
Future-oriented technology analysis Strategic intelligence for an Innovative economy, Springer, Berlin, 2008.34 D. Loveridge, P. Street, Inclusive foresight, Foresight 7 (3)( 2005) 31 47.35 H. A. Linstone, Multiple perspectives:
Foresight exercises, in turn, usually identify the possible future developments, driving forces, emerging technologies, barriers, threats and opportunities related to a broader socio-techno-economic system.
including its environmental, social and economic perspectives. The High level Expert Group appointed by the European commission crystallized these trends by defining foresight as follows 5:
but also economical analysis. This section describes the methodological developments of risk assessment in the context of industrial safety,
economics and technology, applying big amount of creative brainstorming approaches ending to two potential scenarios.
which have political, ecological, social, technological and economical effects in society. 3. 4. Positioning the projects according to some important dimensions Könnölä et al.
In the Book‘Future-oriented technology analysis Strategic intelligence for an Innovative economy',Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, 2008, pp. 25 40.2 T.,Könnölä, T.,Ahlqvist, A.,Eerola, S.,Kivisaari, R.,Koivisto
and rationalist technology-focused approaches towards broader concerns including the whole innovation process with its environmental, social and economic perspectives.
Securing Competitive advantage in the Information Economy, Oxford university Press, Oxford, 1999.42 JRC and IPTS FOR-LEARN On-line Foresight guide in http://forlearn. jrc. ec. europa. eu/guide/4 methodology/framework. htm (read May 28th 2009).
observing, and interpreting the future directions and consequences of societal, economic, and technological change, but also the methodological approaches used in their analysis vary greatly.
Besides technological development decision-makers need all-inclusive knowledge of future developments of society, economy and impacts of science and technology.
such knowledge is important for comparing the innovation performance of nations to other economies. Finland is among the countries improving her position in worldwide performance comparisons
The theoretical framework of the barometer is based on the evolution of economies from industrial development phase to sustainable knowledge society.
Innovation policy Science and Technology indicators Barometer Future-oriented knowledge 1. Introduction A growing number of different international comparison systems of the economic and innovation performance of nations have emerged within a decade 2
when competition is not only between multinational and other enterprises but also between economies and innovation systems. Comparisons are based on a number of different indicators,
composite indicators or survey based studies providing comparisons in a wide range of fields like economy, society, education, innovation system, or sustainable development.
and soon in early 2000s reached a position among leading nations for example according to competitiveness reports of IMDANDWORLD Economic Forum (WEF).
and resembles economic, industrial and business barometers in its attempt to grasp future developments. The purpose of a technology barometer is to give data of how favorable and competitive the Finnish innovation environment is assessed to be now and in the future.
The future development of the economy and innovation system will be derived in part from the path dependent historical context
For example, the Japanese futurist Yoneji Masuda and the American sociologist Daniel Bell have stated that the essential dimensions of a new society would be seen in the emerging service economy, the role of theoretical knowledge, and technology development.
The theoretical framework of transitional phases of economies created by contemporary social scientists was accepted widely as the platform for constructing the barometer instrument.
and dynamics into the analysis. The framework enables the structural comparisons of entire economies, their individual industrial sectors, related R&d and innovation intensities,
Structural characteristics, dynamics and knowledge intensity differ essentially also among developed economies, and the entire economic systems or their sub-systems are in different development phases.
Thereby the inclusion of transitional phases of economies to the comparative analyses of economic and innovation systems deepens the understanding of the long-term socioeconomic changes and dynamics.
Moreover, performance comparisons are often based on input data for developing innovation systems, like private and public R&d investments,
The central role of information is apparent in the economy, production, working life, education and schooling, etc.
In the knowledge-value society, innovation, technology development, economic regeneration, openness to new ideas, and their active exploitation, are all inherent elements contributing to the basic values and culture of the society.
The combination of the indicator-based comparative study and the future-oriented survey into one instrument creates a unique platform for the further analyses of the economic
According to the indicators of sustainable development Sweden, Denmark and The netherlands proved to be leading of the rated economies followed by Finland.
in order to comply with the ongoing changes in the economy from resource-based structures into competence-based ones.
has generated a vivid national discussion of the strengths and weaknesses as well as the future directions of the Finnish economy and innovation system.
but furthermore the related national comparative examination gives additional and more detailed insights into the discussion of the future development of the national economy and innovation system.
which is a combination of social and economic scientific methods, calls for a high transparency of the methods used as well as transparency of all the utilized data.
moreover on different factors affecting the national economy and innovation system. For example, political changes and elections,
JRC (2002) and compilation by OECD. Area/name of composite indicator Economy Composite of Leading indicators (OECD) OECD International Regulation Database (OECD) Economic Freedom of the World
Index (Economic Freedom Network) Economic Sentiment Indicator (EC) Internal Market Index (EC) Business Climate Indicator (EC) Environment Environmental sustainability Index (World
Economic Forum) Wellbeing Index (Prescott-Allen) Sustainable development Index (UN) Synthetic Environmental Indices (Isla M.)Eco-indicator 99 (pre consultants) Concern about environmental problems
(Parker) Index of Environmental Friendliness (Puolamaa) Environmental policy Performance Index (Adriaanse) Globalization Global Competitiveness Report (World Economic Forum) Transnationality Index (UNCTAD) Globalization
in Knowledge-based Economy (EC) Performance in Knowledge-based Economy (EC) Technology Achievement Index (UN) General Indicator of Science and Technology (NISTEP) Information and Communications technologies
knowledge management 3. 3. 2. Entrepreneurship and economic regeneration 3. 3. 3. Networking and openness in international activities 3. 4. Sustainable development 3. 4. 1. Social
Economy, Society and Culture, vol. I, Blackwell, Cambridge, MA, 1996.12 M. Castells, The Power and Identity, The Information age:
Economy, Society and Culture, vol. II, Blackwell, Cambridge, MA, 1997.13 M. Castells, The End of the Millennium, The Information age:
Economy, Society and Culture, vol. III, Blackwell, Cambridge, MA, 1998. Torsti Loikkanen is a Senior Research scientist
He holds A m. Sc. in economics from Helsinki University. Toni Ahlqvist is a Senior Research scientist
quality of life, the economy, the environment etc. The topics that were chosen and identified during the search phase should be checked and by a broader information base,
But in detail, there were differences when looking at the relevancy for economy, relevancy for the quality of life, relevancy for the environment, and so on...
At the same time, it is exactly the capability to combine diverse elements in new ways to respond to change which characterises the quality of innovation systems within a learning economy.
Institutional and Technological change in Japan's Economy, Routledge, London, 2005.1196 K. Cuhls et al.//Technological forecasting & Social Change 76 (2009) 1187 1197 22 P. Warnke, G. Heimeriks, Technology foresight as innovation policy instrument:
Future-oriented technology analysis, Strategic intelligence for an Innovative economy, Springer, Berlin, 2008, pp. 71 87.23 F. Scapolo, A l. Porter, New methodological developments in FTA, in:
Future-oriented technology analysis, Strategic intelligence for an Innovative economy, Springer, Berlin, 2008, pp. 149 162.24 S. Kuhlmann, R. Smits, The rise of Systemic Instruments in Innovation policy, Int. Journal of Foresight
, Strategic intelligence for an Innovative economy, Springer, Berlin, 2008.26 A g. Pereira, R. von Schomberg, S. Funtowicz, Foresight Knowledge Assessment, International Journal of Foresight and Innovation policy, vol
technological, economic, ecological and political trends has become sort of a mainstream practice, too 6. Our analysis underlines the need to treat political context factors
She is a member of the Global Agenda Council on Strategic foresight of the World Economic Forum. 1207 A. Volkery, T. Ribeiro/Technological forecasting & Social Change 76 (2009) 1198 1207
In the 1990s most of these programmes were driven by the economic mantra of technologically dependent competitiveness and its importance to national economies.
Because of their overt techno-economic purpose Foresight has relied on the opinions of a relatively narrow body of technologically oriented people.
For inclusivity these three questions are interrelated in social, technical, economic, ecological, political and value/norm (acronym STEEPV) aspects of society.
It is known that individuals move around the hierarchy with the passage of time and according to economic and other circumstances.
and success. They defend the status quo of the economic system. For Inner-directeds inner growth is a cardinal characteristic;
economic and societal landscapes will co-evolve. Therefore, those wishing to develop strategies for managing nanotechnology emergence
The idea from evolutionary economics of a selection environment indicates the part played by economic, institutional and social factors in shaping a technology. 4 Braun for example describes the early notions of innovation as being characterised by a‘linear'view of innovation as an automatic spill over process between basic knowledge
Green et al. 16 in their comparison of the techno-economic networks (micro-level analysis stemming from sociology)
and techno-economic paradigms (macro-level analysis stemming from evolutionary economics similar to Nelson & Winters natural trajectories) critique both analyses for missing the interplay between both.
Finland begins to invest in nanotechnology for paper processing (a major contributor to the Finnish economy.
One example, Finland begins to invest in nanotechnology for paper processing (a major contributor to the Finnish economy) Anticipatory coordination and lock in:
Finnish economy begins to suffer due to the high sunk investments into nanotechnology based infrastructure. Public outcry as consumer organisations identify major issues in a number of sectors which could hold potential risk with no protection for the consumer (the house of cards collapses) Window of opportunity for selectors:
making use of recent insights from sociology and economics of technology, Technol. Anal. Strateg. Manag. 7 (4)( 1995) 417 431.13 A. Rip, A co-evolutionary approach to reflexive governance and its ironies, in:
New Directions in the Sociology and History of Technology, The MIT Press, Cambridge Massachusetts, 1987.16 K. Green, R. Hull, A. Mcmeeking, V. Walsh, The construction of the techno-economic:
Studies in Making Sociotechnical Order, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin New york, 1998.22 M. Callon, Techno-economic networks and irreversibility, in:
Technical change and Economic theory, Pinter, London, 1988.26 P. A. David, Clio and the economics of QWERTY, Am.
Rev. 75 (1985) 332 337.27 W. B. Arthur, Positive feedbacks in the economy, Scientific American (February), 1990, pp. 80 85.28 R. Garud, P
It is worth highlighting that the exercise has identified a competence area linked to the financial and economic crisis of 2008 09,
a significant difference between today's knowledge-based economies and the industrial economies of 30 or 50 years ago is that technological development has become crucial for economic development
the economy and society with the aim of identifying the areas of strategic research Downloaded by University of Bucharest at 05:09 03 december 2014 Foresight
and strategy in national research councils and research programmes 919 and the emerging generic technologies likely to yield the greatest economical and social benefits'(Martin 1995).
First, foresight exercises include future societal and economic needs and possibilities in the setting of priorities.
and objectives for foresight The rationale for carrying out public foresight exercises is often related to the political goal of increasing economical competitiveness by means such as technological or societal innovation.
4) to create positiiv external economies through the exchange of information, knowledge and vision; and (5) to facilitate the formation of markets (Johnson and Jacobsson 2001.
It is acknowledged generally that the theoretical rationale for foresight exercises is supported by the perspective (or school) of evolutionary economics (Georghiou and Keenan 2006.
Rather, foresight is a field of practice with origins in several other more or less established academic disciplines such as evolutionary economy, strategy, technology assessment or social studies of science, futures studies.
that of science, technology, economy and society in general. In the perspective of strategic positioning (Mintzberg, Ahlstrand,
and it is economical and competitive (and not to better understand nature and humankind). Foresight processes form a rational-analytical decision machine, capable of identifying areas that yield the greatest economic and social benefits.
Foresight practitioners (process consultants or core groups) play a major role in these processes, feeding results to decision-makers in charge of implementing the choices.
It is difficult to obtain comparable statistics for research council funding activities on the scale of the European union (EU) or countries of the Organisation for Economic cooperation and Development (OECD). In Denmark,
but with tighter cooperation with the strategic research council's activitiies Other reforms are expected in coming years as a result of the Government's Strategy for Denmark in the Global economy (The Prime minister's Office 2006).
which is part of the Ministry of Economic and Businessaffairs (which also covers energy). The programme and its strategies are coordinated with general national energy polices and often also with other policy areas;
but the Ministte for Economic and Business affairs through the Energy Authority had overall political responsibility
REFU) is an advisory board for the Energy Authority and the Ministry of Economic and Business affairs.
Strategy for Denmark in the global economy Summary. Copenhagen: The Prime minister's Office. http://www. globalisering. dk/page. dsp?
in order to better ensure that additional public investment in R&d will yield expected economic and social benefits.
The Centre of Competence in Molecular Medicine was launched in 2008 as an initiative of the Ministry of Economic Affairs, the Ministry of Health and the MCHER.
particularly of the seeming lack of vision in the proposals and an apparent weakness in reflecting economic and societal needs.
ICT Infrastructure Telecoms Voip Social & human sciences Economy, policies, institutional framework Economy and finance Dynamics of financial wealth creation Downloaded by University of Bucharest at 05:09 03 december
National priorities National priorities (Research areas)( Research domains) Innovation in services Business service design and innovation Fostering the economic and legal environment for Innovation performance and development of the financial systems
'i e. areas of potential economic success which may only be achieved through a knowledge base developed in Luxembourg.
and depend upon a specific constellation of economic, technological, legislative and societal factors. Foresight exercises might provide a platform for nascent niche areas to gain greater prominence,
Second, it is clear that a forward-looking process like foresight needs to be underpinned by sufficient and appropriate‘objectivised'data, e g. publication data, statistics on the national R&d environment, reports on the state of economy, environment or society
2.‘Competence niches'refer to areas of potential economic success that develop from the establishment of an exceptionally strong knowledge base in a particular domain. 3. As the GDP of Luxembourg has increased by 50%(from¤22 to 33.1 billion) between 2000 and 2006,
Law, Economy and Finance and Social sciences and Humanities. 7. Since the thematic fields had been analysed and structured to different levels of depth during the first phase,
and the economic development priorities in the various sectors of the economy. 9. The rationale for presenting EWS participants with a list of‘ready-made'research domains was to prevent discussions starting from scratch.
In fact, in response to the economic crisis in early 2009, the City of Vienna decided to spend an additional¤60 million on research infrastructures and cutting-edge research as part of a broader economic and employment stimulus package.
Its implementation has been accelerated by the economic crisis in 2008/2009 that has led to an increase in funding for RTI as part of city's economic
He studied economics and has been doing research and foresight projects in the area of research, technoloog and innovation policy, in particular related to regional and technological innovation systems such as transport and energy.
He studied economics and social sciences and holds a Phd fromvienna University of Economics and Business.
She studied Economics and Philosophy and is doing her Phd research on the role of diversity in innovation systems.
In Technical change and economic theory, ed. G. Dosi, C. Freeman, R. R. Nelson, G. Silverberg and L. Soete, 221 38.
and sub-national innovation systems complementarity and economic growth. Research policy 31, no. 2: 191 211. Havas, A d. Schartinger,
What is the‘knowledge economy'?'Knowledge intensity and distributed knowledge bases. Discussion papers 06. Maastricht: United nations University, Institute for New technologies.
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