and computer engineers called Bellkor's Pragmatic Chaos. The group developed software that is at least 10%more accurate than Netflix's current software
2005, over a period of three weeks, by means of computer assisted telephone interviewing (CATI.
and was implemented by means of computer-assisted telephone interviewing. Data collection was done over a 3-week period in December 2005.
and was implemented by means of computer-assisted telephone interviewing. Data collection was done over a 3-week period in December 2005.
and computer engineers called Bellkor's Pragmatic Chaos. The group developed software that is at least 10%more accurate than Netflix's current software
-ation is even worse in software and computer ser -vices. SAP was the only European company spending
1) computers and automated business equipment,(2) microorganisms and genetic engineering,(3) lasers, and (4) semi
class computer and automated business equipment the share of the EU-27 (the current 27 members of
fields such as †pharmaceuticalsâ€, †computers office machineryâ€, †telecommunications†and †electronics†than in medium technology fields
ICT hardware, including computers and peripherals semiconductors, and telecommunications equipment Europe declined from 63%in 1961 to 41%in 1994
largest effect were computer and office equipment and electronic components. In addition, these sectors showed the largest spillover effects to other indus
-search in the underlying fields, particularly computer science, and industrial competitiveness. We will use original evidence, admittedly of preliminary type, to
small panel of scientific authorities in computer sci -ence, in both European and US universities, to list
Luckily, computer science and the computer in -dustry have been the object of a massive historical literature, that has highlighted several key factors
-15 computer, based on Harry Huskey†s 1953 design at Wayne State university, Detroit, MI. Thus in the ear
-ing the computer. Soon after WWII, the University European competitiveness: IT and long-term scientific performance
by a group of universities and computer users which held a meeting at the Computation Center of the
-tion of computers, while after the emergence of a dedicated computer industry they were rather com
Indeed, the origins of the computer technology are to be found in 20th century European science, particularly in the work of two intellectual
computer, the universal Turing machine (Davis 2000). ) He had visited Princeton in 1936, where he met the great logician Alonzo Church and von
-program computer, conformed to the Von neumann architecture, was completed and labelled the Man -chester automatic digital machine (MADM)( Lav
automatic computer (EDSAC) was realized at Cambridge. Here Maurice Wilkes developed ideas that prepared for high-level programming languages
years of the computer era the UK was head-to-head with the USA. Ironically, as Moreau notes
A commercial computer, known as LEO was installed at a company in 1951, well before ENIAC (Campbell-Kelly, 1989;
In France the theoretical roots of computer sci -ence were laid down as early as the 1930s.
computers started with the pioneering work of Konrad Zuse well before WWII. Zuse started his
and large computer manufacturers emerged. How -ever, a sharp difference seems to emerge between the evolution of the technology in the USA and
The computer originated in the academic envi -ronment. Zuse and IBM are special cases. From
computer has an essential abstract side, most visible in programming, and abstract automati -zation is at least not a usual industrial subject
The abstract nature of computer objects (e g. data procedures) allowed a process of progressive trans
This is roughly confirmed for computer science (79.4%on the diagonal cell) but not for mathematics and engineering
Mathematics Engineering Computer science Other disciplines No Phd Total Number%Number%Number%Number%Number%Number
A computer pioneer†s talk: pioneering work in software during the 50s in Central europe. In History of Com
Computer Designers. Memphis, TN: Books LLC (extracts from Wikipedia Books LLC 2010b. German Computer scientists. Memphis, TN
Computer. A History of the Information Machine. Cambridge, MA: Westview Press Cantwell, J and G D Santangelo 2003.
-ley Park†s Codebreaking Computers. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press Crescenzi, R, A Rodriguez-Pose and M Storper 2007.
of the Computer. New york, Norton and Company Dummer, G W A 1997. Electronic Inventions and Discoveries
Creating the Computer: Government, Industry and High technology. WASHINGTON DC: Brookings Institution Freiberger, P and M Swaine 1984.
Early British Computers. Manchester, UK Manchester University Press Lavington, S 1980b. Computer development at Manchester Uni
-versity. In A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century. A Collection of Essays, N Metropolis, J Howlett and G Rota
Heroes of the Computer Revolution. New York, Doubleday Lowen, R 1997. Creating the Cold war University.
The Computer Comes Of age. The People, the Hardware, and the Software. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
French computer manufacturers and the component industry, 1952†1972. History and Technology 11 (2), 195†216
The International Computer Software Industry. Oxford, UK: Oxford university Press Mowery, D c and N Rosenberg 1998.
Computers and Commerce. A Study of Tech -nology and Management at Eckert-Mauchly Computer Com
-pany, Engineering Research Associates, and Remington Rand, 1946†1957. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press Norberg, A l and J E O†Neill 1996.
Transforming Computer Tech -nology. Information Processing for the Pentagon, 1962†1986 Baltimore, MD: Johns hopkins university Press
In The First Computers. History and Architec -tures, R Rojas and U Hashagen (eds..Cambridge, MA:
Computers. The Life story of a Technology. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press Ten Raa, T and E N Wolff 2000.
on the first generation of computers. In The First Computers History and Architectures, R Rojas and U Hashagen (eds
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press Wirth, N 1996. Recollections about the development of Pascal. In History of Programming languages-II, T J Bergin and R G
no computer-assisted telephone interviews Nr. Basis Question/Information Answers 1<Filter for companies growing 20%or more
no computer-assisted telephone interviews Nr. Basis Question/Information Answers 1<Filter for companies growing 20%or more
school inside the Authomatics and Computer Faculty of the †Gheorghe Asachi†University another one inside the Electronics, Telecommunications and Information technology
telecommunications and software, computer programming, mecatronics, security, e-health, ITC for transport, new media, irrespectively
26 Computer, Electronic and Optical 2. 3 29 Motor vehicles 3. 1 NACE Description Location Quotient NACE Description
02 Forestry and Logging 19.9 26 Computer, Electronic and Optical 6. 1 05 Coal mining 17.1 27 Electrical Equipment 3. 5
Manufacture of computer, electronic and optical products 2. 1 3. 2 3. 0 3. 4
Manufacture of Computers and Peripheral Equipment; Other Information technology and Computer Service Activities; Data processing, hosting and related activities;
Computer programming activities; Web portals; Computer programming activities networks of the future, networked marketing and media and 3d internet
flexible organic and large area electronics, personal health and preventive care systems, research and innovation IT network, etc
The local universities are especially strong in natural sciences, mathematics, computer science, food engineering, agriculture, as well as medical and veterinary sciences.
computer at the level of companies -penetration rate of broadband connections at the level of companies
computers with access to broadband connections -penetration of public buildings with broadband connections Providing relevant
computers and Internet -the degree of digital alphabetization of the public administration Based on the objectives formulated before the elaboration of the strategy on the
Rate of available computers at households level 26 (in 2006 40 60 Percentage of persons that use the
Companies with computer 98,4 98,6 Companies with Local area network 90,9 86,4 Companies with internet 97,9 97,2
Households with computer 74,1 71,5 Households with Internet 69,0 63,9 Households with broadband 66,5 61,9
Population using computer 68,0 69,3 Population accessing Internet 70,1 67,1 Population purchase through internet 22,6 18,9
http://i3a. unizar. es, IT complex systems with the support of a super computer http://bifi. unizar. es
than 10 employees had compared computers with 71.6%at the national level. In the case of companies with more than 10 employees, these percentages increased to 98%.63.7
ratio of students per computer, this figure has been decreasing in Castilla y Leã n as well
with computers and devices and Internet access, high use of ecommerce, high percentage of digital natives;
•†Computer  equipment  and  Internet  access  digital  natives
31.4%,Industrial and Commercial Machinery and Computer Equip -ment), SIC 34 (11.98%,Fabricated Metal Products, Except Machinery
%Industrial and commercial machinery and computer equipment 35 173 31.40 31.40 Fabricated metal products, except machinery and transportation equipment 34 66 11.98 43.38 2 10.00 10.00
Electronic and other electrical equipment and components, except computer equipment 36 43 7. 80 60.25
technologies such as computer-numerically-controlled production tools have made it possible for small firms in many industries to produce small batches as efficiently as large
computers and office machinery (30; electronics-communications (32 scientific instruments (33. KISA comprises: post and telecommunications (64;
computer and related activities (72; research and development (73 3. An overview on the ORBIS database is given in Annex 3. A1
including aerospace, pharmaceuticals, computers and office machinery, electronics -communications, and scientific instruments Incremental innovation An improvement on existing products or processes that is achieved through internal
computer and related activities; research and development Learning failure A type of systemic failure occurring when firms in an innovation system have not
Playroom, Visual Arts Room and Workshop, Computer Rooms, Dental care Office Cafeteria, Kitchen and Pantry, in addition to a Multipurpose Sports Court within its facilities
Computers and Society, September 13-19 Caves, R, . & Walshok, M. 1999). â€oeadopting Innovations in Information technology, †Cities, 16 (1), 3-12
Computer-Mediated Communication, 3 (1), http://www. ascusc. org/jcmc/vol3/issue1/garton. html GÃ tzl,
and Europe, †Proceeding of International Association of Computer Information systems Pacific 2005 Conference, Taipei, Taiwan, May 19-21
computer software products and services Also in this sector are the traditional media stalwarts such as photography, print covering newspapers and magazines, radio, TV and book publishing and retail,
computer engineers. The ICT sector currently lacks people with the right skills to accomplish a number of functions
Computer algorithms are better at diagnosing severe cancer than humans, Kenneth Cukier told Euractiv, and big data can predict
It†s a demonstrable fact that a computer algorithm is better at diagnosing severe cancer than a human.
five has no computer experience Age disparities were detected also with high school pupils having sometimes better
1. The Computer Revolution, the"Productivity Paradox"and the Economists Over the past forty years, computers have evolved from a specialized and limited role in the information
processing and communication processes of modern organizations to become a general purpose tool that can be
computers"were surrounded large machines by peripheral equipment and tended by specialized technical staff working in specially constructed and air conditioned centers,
In the process, computers and networks of computers have become an integral part of the research and design operations of most
enterprises and, increasingly, an essential tool supporting control and decision-making at both middle and top
In the latter half of this forty year revolution, microprocessors allowed computers to escape from their â€oeboxes, †embedding information processing in a growing array of artifacts as diverse as greeting cards
It was at that point, in the midst of the â€oepersonal computer revolution, †that mounting concerns about the
"You can see the computer age everywhere but in the productivity statistics.""1 Almost overnight this contrasting juxtaposition achieved the status of being treated as the leading
as a consequence, the emergence of modern computer, telecommunication and satellite technologies have changed fundamentally the structure of the American economy. â€
the rise of computer capital, and OCAM (office, computing and accounting machinery) capital more generally
such a small fraction of GDP that the rapid growth of real computer assets per se can hardly be expected to be
computers and related information equipment and software--due in part to misplaced technological enthusiasm and also to exaggeration of the relative scale of those capital expenditures, or
regard to the computer revolution's potential economic impact, I should make it clear from the outset that
disappointments with the impact of computers upon the more readily measurable forms of task-productivity.
and computer productivity paradox are first and foremost consequences of a mismeasurement problem must produce a consistent account of the timing and
questions we should briefly review their bearing on the puzzle of the slowdown and the computer productivity
The increasing proliferation of new goods and its connection with the application of computers, electronic
or computer software titles, the count of which is in the neighborhood of a quarter of a million), the multiplication of the number of models available for consumers to
Of course, some progress has been made in resolving the computer productivity paradox by virtue of the introduction of so-called â€oehedonic†price indexes for the output of the computer and electronic business
equipment industries themselves. These indexes reflect the spectacularly rapid decline in the price-performance ratios of such forms of capital.
Thus, the â€oehedonic†correction of computer and related equipment prices has done wonders as a boost to the growth rate of output and multifactor productivity in the producing industry;
token, the hedonic deflation of investment expenditures on computer equipment contributes to raising the measured growth of the computer capital services,
which are used intensively as inputs in a number of sectors including banking, financial services and wholesale trade within the service sector.
computer-capital intensity, and therefore in overall tangible capital-intensity, supports the growth rate of labor
The first involves the surprising appearance of â€oeexcess rates of return on computer capital. †These
industry producing computer equipment. See, e g.,, Wykoff (1995) for an evaluation of other dimensions of the distortions
computer investments, and the weaker (time series) effects gauged in terms of task productivity, might indicate simply that very high gross private rates of return are associated with such capital expenditures.
the price-performance ratio of new computer equipment has been falling, these seemingly â€oeexcess†private returns would be called for to equalize net private rates of return on various assets held by the company
value of company tangibles and the market valuation of computer-intensive firms for concluding that the
23 Brynolfsson and Yang (1997, revised 1999) report that computer usage is associated with very high calculated values of
The problem of non-market production of intangibles in the form of computer software was relatively
4. Troubles with Computers: Effects of General Purpose Machines on Task-Productivity Laying the whole burden of explanation on the notion that existing concepts and methods are inadequate
in accounting for the effects of the computer revolution is, however, not satisfactory. Even if a large share of
that there are real problems in delivering on the productivity promises of the computer revolution 4. 1 Component performance and system performance
A common focus of attention in the computer revolution is the rapidity with which the performance of
may be tenfold the size of the acquisition costs of the computer itself. 24 Many of these costs are unrelated to the
however, it is apparent to most sophisticated users of computers that the extension of these capabilities also creates a vast new array of problems that must be solved to achieve desired
computer-assisted task may fill the time previously allotted for its completion. Surely, this is not the average
computer. It is something of an historical irony that the core elements of the adaptation problems attending this
computers to allow their use for specialized control and computation applications supported the birth of the
computer. As microprocessors became cheaper and more sophisticated and applications for dedicated information processing continued to expand,
a variety of task-specific computers came into existence One of the largest markets for such task specific computers created during the 1970's was that for
dedicated word-processing systems, which appeared as an incremental step in office automation, aimed at the task of producing documents repetitive in content
offered by sources other than the computer vendors. 27 The dedicated word processor's demise was mirrored by
28similar decisions were made by all of the U s. computer manufacturers. See the discussion in Steinmueller (1996
community that continuous technological progress and upgrading of computers, with which they are centrally engaged, is ultimately for the benefit of the user.
â€oethe computer. †Recent work in the spirit of the new growth theory has sought to generalize on the idea (formulated by
32 As quoted in W. Wayt Gibbs, â€oetaking Computers to Taskâ€, Scientific American, July, 1997
By drawing an explicit analogy between â€oethe dynamo and the computer, †David (1991 sought to use the U s. historical experience to give a measure of concreteness to the general observation that an
5. 1 Diffusion, dynamos and computers Although central generating stations for electric lighting systems were introduced first by Edison in
Recent estimates of the growth of computer stocks and the flow of services therefrom are consistent with
when computers had evolved not yet so far beyond their limited role in information processing machinery, computer equipment and the larger category of office, accounting
and computing machinery OCAM) were providing only 0. 56 percent and 1. 5 percent, respectively, of the total flow of real services from
ratio of computer equipment services to all producers†durable equipment services in the U s Does the parallel carry over also,
experienced during the 1979-1997 phase of"the computer revolution";"it took 25 years for the electrified percent
the same quantitative change has been accomplished for the computer within with a span of only 18 years.
quality of the computer stock; whereas the electrification diffusion index simply compares horsepower rating of
growth of the ratio of computer equipment services to all producers'durable equipment services in the U s. turns
computer capital formation to make a substantial contribution to raising output growth in the economy point to the rapid
comparison of alternative estimates of net and gross basis computer service"contributions to growth "35 If we extrapolate from the (slowed) rate at
electrification of industry as to render illegitimate any attempt to gain insights into the dynamics of the computer
computer equipment has been plummeting so far exceeds the rate of fall in the real unit costs of electric energy
computer services for 1987-1993 to have been-7. 9 percent per annum, and compares that to-7. 0 percent per
electricity and quality adjusted computer services hardly warrants dismissing the relevance of seeking some insights into the dynamics of the transition to new general purpose technology by looking back at the dynamo
computer services--and, by implication, the comparison just reported--may be misleading. He contends that the hedonic price indexes for computers that come bundled with software actually would have fallen faster than
the (unbundled) price-performance ratios that have been used as deflators for investment in computer hardware If so, Sichel†s (1997) price indexes of quality adjusted â€oecomputer services†(from hardware and software) would
Furthermore, in the same vein it may be noticed that the slower rate of fall in computer services prices as
inasmuch as the utility of (net) computer power 37 Fortuitously, these dates bound the period in
regime transition hypothesis on the grounds that the analogy between computer and dynamo is flawed by the
putative) discrepancy between the rate at which prices associated with electricity and computer services. Such
computer and dynamo, once again While there still seems to be considerable heuristic value in the historical analogy that has been drawn
between"the computer and the dynamo,"a cautious, even skeptical attitude is warranted in regard to the predictions for the future that some commentators have tried to extract from the existence of the points of close
it perhaps was still too soon to be disappointed that the computer revolution had failed to unleash a sustained
whatsoever about the future temporal pace of the computer's diffusion Least of all does it tell us that the detailed shape of the diffusion path that lies ahead will mirror the
purpose computer was invented originally. What they do promise are greater and more systematic efforts to
computer and mainframe environment by developing the intermediate solution of client-server data processing systems. This development is still very much in progress
Computer Power.""Brookings Papers on Economic activity 2: 347-420,1988 Beckett, Samuel, Waiting for Godot: A Tragicomedy in Two Acts, 2nd ed.,London:
Brynolfsson, Erik and S. Yang, â€oethe Intangible Costs and Benefits of Computer Investments: Evidence from
Computer, London: Mcgraw-hill Book Co.,1996 Cox, W. Michael, and Roy J. Ruffin, â€oewhat Should Economists Measure?
David, Paul A.,â€oethe Dynamo and the Computer: An Historical Perspective on the Productivity Paradox, †American
the Computer Revolution, †in Technology and Investment-Crucial Issues for the 90s, E. Deiaco, E. Hà rner and G. Vickery
Computers and the Solow Paradox, †prepared for the conference on Monetary Policy in a World of Knowledge-Based Growth, Quality Change and Uncertain
Jorgenson, Dale and Kevin Stiroh,"Computers and Growth,"Economics of Innovation and New Technology 3: 295
Lichtenberg, Frank R.,â€oethe Output Contributions of Computer Equipment and Personnel: A Firm-Level Analysis, â€
Norman, Donald A.,The Invisible Computer: Why Good Products Can Fail, the Personal computer is So Complex
. and Daniel E. Sichel, 1994,"Computers and Output Growth Revisited: How Big is the Puzzle
Sichel, Daniel E.,The Computer Revolution: An Economic Perspective, WASHINGTON DC: The Brookings Institution Press, 1997:
What Do Computers Do to Productivity? â€, Prepared for the meetings of the American Economic Association, January, Chicago, Illinois, 1998
Wykoff, Andrew W.,â€oethe Impact of Computer Prices on International Comparisons of Labour Productivity, â€
Moreover, the use of computers has expanded to almost the entirety of these companies (99.2%).%)In turn, 87.3%had a Local area network (LAN) installed, and
-Computers 99.2 99.1 99.5 99.8 -Local area network 87.3 85.9 95.0 97.7 -Wireless Local area network 61.9 59.5 74.2 81.1
72.3%of companies with fewer than 10 employees had computers, and 24.4%had a Local
-Computers 71.6 72.3 -Local area network 24.0 24.4 -Wireless Local area network 16.4 17.6 -Internet connection 65.7 67.7 -Broadband (fixed or mobile) Internet connection (1) 98.5 99.0
large companies and was implemented by means of computer-assisted telephone interviewing. Data collection was done over a 2 month period during September-October
SL 5 †Computer Communication Networks and Telecommuni -cations  The Editor (s)( if applicable) and the Author (s) 2011.
of nodes (computers, terminals mobile devices, sensors, etc. of the Internet will soon grow to more than 100 billion 1. Reliability, availability, and interoperability re
computers (e g.,, terminals, servers, etc. CPUS, etc. and handlers (software pro -grams/routines) that generate
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host itself, for example, a computer in the network or an embedded server may act as the REP host for a resource,
1 University of Rome â€oela Sapienzaâ€, Computer and System Sciences Department Via Ariosto 25,00185 Rome, Italy
application layer, without extending to the middle and lower layers of computer networks. In this research area, this paper aims to contribute to advancing the
and translate them into functionality in computer networks Link Layer: This is the layer that has the responsibility to establish the link
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there is an active entity (a person, an organization, a computer, a robot, etc. that provides the services, with a given cost and time (not to mention SLA, etc.
•Tangible entity, from computers to aircrafts, to buildings and furniture •Intangible entity, for which a digital image is mandatory
-cused on microprocessor design, computer design, power-on-demand architectures and virtual machine consolidation techniques. However, a micro-level energy effi
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